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wakō

Nom chinois
Chinois 倭寇
Traduction littérale bandit japonais ou bandit nain
Transcription
Mandarin
- Pinyin wōkòu
Cantonais
- Jyutping wo1 kau3
 

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Raids des wakō sur la Chine et la Corée au XVIe siècle.

Les wakō (倭寇?), chinois : 倭寇 ; pinyin : wōkòu ; litt. « bandit japonais ou bandit nain » et coréen : 왜구 waegu (hanja : 倭寇) sont des pirates qui pillent les côtes chinoises et coréennes du XIIIe siècle au XVIe siècle[1][2].

Les équipages des wakō sont composés de marins provenant de diverses ethnies d'origines est-asiatique, qui varient au fil du temps. Ils attaquent le continent à partir des îles de la mer du Japon et de la mer de Chine orientale[3]. L'activité des wakō en Corée décline après le Traité de Gyehae en 1443[1], mais continue sur les côtes de la Chine des Ming et culmine lors des raids des wakō de Jiajing, au milieu du XVIe siècle. Les représailles chinoises et la forte répression des pirates par les autorités japonaises aboutissent à la disparition des wakō au XVIIe siècle.

Histoire

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Une peinture chinoise du XVIIIe siècle représentant une bataille navale entre des pirates wakō et des marins chinois

On peut découper leIl existe deux époques distinctes de piratage du wokou. Les premiers wokou installaient principalement leur camp sur les îles éloignées de l'archipel japonais dans la mer du Japon, contrairement aux wokou du XVIe siècle qui étaient pour la plupart non japonais. Les premiers wokou attaquèrent les Japonais ainsi que les Chinois et les Coréens[4].

La première utilisation enregistrée du terme wokou (倭寇) se trouve sur la stèle de Gwanggaeto, érigée dans l'actuel Ji'an, Jilin, en Chine pour célébrer les exploits de Gwanggaeto le Grand de Goguryeo (Modèle : Règne). La stèle indique que les « wokou » (« voleurs japonais ») traversèrent la mer et furent vaincus par lui en 404.5. Le terme wokou est une combinaison des termes chinois Wō (倭), désignant soit les nains, soit de manière péjorative les Japonais, et kòu (Modèle:Linktext) "bandit".67

There are two distinct eras of wokou piracy. The early wokou mostly set up camp on the outlying islands of the Japanese archipelago in the Sea of Japan, as opposed to the 16th-century wokou who were mostly non-Japanese. The early wokou raided the Japanese as well as the Chinese and Koreans.

The first recorded use of the term wokou (倭寇) is on the Gwanggaeto Stele, erected in modern Ji'an, Jilin, China to celebrate the exploits of Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo (Modèle:Reign). The stele states that "wokou" ("Japanese robbers") crossed the sea and were defeated by him in 404.[5] The term wokou is a combination of the Chinese terms Wō (倭), referring to either dwarfs or pejoratively to the Japanese, and kòu (Modèle:Linktext) "bandit".[6][7]

Early wokou

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L'une des portes de la forteresse de Chongwu sur la côte du Fujian (construite à l'origine vers 1384)

The origin of the term wokou dates back to the 4th century, but among wokou's activities, which are divided into two academic periods, the pirates called "early wokou" were borne from the Mongol invasions of Japan. As a result of the war, the coastal defense capabilities of China and Korea were significantly reduced, and the people living in Tsushima, Iki, and Gotō Islands in Kyushu suffered extreme poverty. For these reasons, wokou gradually intensified their looting on the coasts of China and Korea.[8][9] Chŏng Mong-ju was dispatched to Japan to deal with the problem. During his visit, Kyushu governor Imagawa Sadayo suppressed the wokou, returning their captured property and people to Korea.[10][11] In 1405, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu sent 20 captured pirates to China, where they were boiled in a cauldron in Ningbo.[12]

According to Korean records, wokou were particularly rampant roughly from 1350. After almost annual invasions of the southern provinces of Jeolla and Gyeongsang, they migrated northwards to the Chungcheong and Gyeonggi areas.[13] The History of Goryeo has a record of sea battles in 1380 whereby one hundred warships were sent to Jinpo to rout Japanese pirates there, releasing 334 captives. Wokou sorties decreased thereafter. The wokou were effectively expelled through the use of gunpowder technology, which the wokou lacked, after Goryeo founded the Office of Gunpowder Weapons in 1377 (which was abolished twelve years later).[13]:pp. 82–86

In 1419, the Korean army landed in Tsushima and started the Ōei Invasion, the largest operation against the wokou. General Yi Jongmu's fleet of 227 ships and 17,285 soldiers set off from Geoje Island toward Tsushima on 19 June 1419. According to "Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty" a Korean history book, on 20 June the Korean army captured 129 wokou ships, burned 1,939 houses, killed 114 people, captured 21 people, and rescued 131 Chinese who the wokou had captured.[14] On 29 June, they burned 15 wokou ships and 68 houses, killed 9 people, and rescued 15 people, including Chinese and Koreans, who had been held captive, but more than 100 soldiers were killed by wokou.[15] On 3 July, the Korean army withdrew to Geoje Island[16] and finally withdrew completely after giving up the re-landing and occupation of Tsushima because of the loss of Korean army and worsening weather.[17] In the record of 10 July, the number of soldiers killed by wokou was rectified to 180.[18] On the other hand, according to historical documents recorded by the Sō clan, the death toll of the Korean army was 2,500.[19][20]

When the Treaty of Gyehae was concluded between the Joseon and Sō Sadamori of Tsushima in 1443 and the Sō clan was given trade privileges, wokou's activities along the Korean Peninsula calmed down.[1] Some of the coastal forts built for defense against wokou can still be found in Zhejiang and Fujian. Among them are the well-restored Pucheng Fortress (in Cangnan County, Zhejiang) and Chongwu Fortress (in Chongwu, Huai'an County, Fujian), as well as the ruins of the Liu'ao Fortress in Liu'ao, Fujian.[21]

Age d'or

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Avec les difficultés politiques de la Chine et le déclin de l'autorité centrale à la fin du XIIIe siècle, le nombre de pirates japonais s'accrut le long de la côte chinoise, voyageant à bord de navires pouvant transporter environ 300 hommes. La piraterie connaît un essor important dans la seconde moitié du XIVe siècle[22]. Rapidement, leur témérité s'accrut, d'autant qu'il était difficile pour les Chinois de surveiller efficacement leur immense façade littorale. De fait, les raids des wakō pénétraient assez profondément à l'intérieur des terres et ravageaient des villages entiers.

Leur action atteignit son paroxysme vers les années 1550, du fait de l'intensification de la guerre civile japonaise entre les daimyos (voir la période de Sengoku)[22]. À cette époque se constituèrent ainsi de puissantes flottes wakō, capables de piller régulièrement des villes comme Ningpo et Shanghai, et de remonter le cours du Yangtsé. Elles finirent même par se retrouver en Thaïlande, en Birmanie et en Inde[23].

Mais les wakō servirent aussi des intérêts politiques et commerciaux. En effet, à cette époque, il n'était pas rare que l'on fît appel à eux pour régler des différends entre daimyos ; surtout, lorsque les Chinois résilièrent les privilèges commerciaux des Japonais, ces derniers, pour assurer leurs profits, n'hésitèrent pas à recourir à la force pour se servir eux-mêmes.

Si à l'origine les wakō étaient tous japonais, au cours du XVIe siècle, de plus en plus de membres d'équipage wakō étaient d'origine chinoise et coréenne[22]. L'île de Taïwan (Formose) fut une grande base d'opération des pirates jusqu'au XVIIe siècle[24].

Le déclin

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En 1559, les nuisances et déprédations constantes des wakō poussèrent la Chine à envoyer le général chinois Ch'i Chi-Kuang, qui lança une grande campagne pour éradiquer ce fléau. Mais les wakō ne furent jugulés que vers 1567[22].

Pour améliorer leur lutte contre ces pirates, le cartographe chinois Zheng Ruozeng traça une carte détaillée des côtes chinoises de la péninsule du Jiaodong au nord, à l'actuelle province du Guangdong, au sud. Il utilisa également les témoignages des victimes des wakō, les prisonniers wakō, et les marchands étant partis à Nagasaki, pour tracer des cartes des côtes du Japon. Il compléta cette collection en 1561, sous le nom de Riben tu zuan (日本图纂 / 日本圖纂, Rìběn tú zuǎn, « Compilation de cartes du Japon »)[25].

Toyotomi Hideyoshi joua un grand rôle dans le déclin des wakō[22]. Deux mesures ont eu une importance particulière contre eux. La première est le katanagari (« chasse à l'épée »), c'est-à-dire la confiscation des armes des opposants potentiels au pouvoir de Hideyoshi, qui eut lieu en 1588. Ainsi tous les daimyos dont la loyauté à Hideyoshi était remise en cause pouvaient se voir confisquer leurs armes. Cette mesure rendit très difficile l'approvisionnement en armes pour les wakō. La deuxième mesure, moins connue, menaçait tous les daimyos qui aideraient les wakō d'une confiscation de leur han (fief).

L'arrivée des Portugais à Macao joua aussi un rôle contre les wakō[22]. Portugais et Chinois s'entendirent en effet pour les éradiquer. Un document de 1564 parlant d'une attaque conjointe entre Chinois et Portugais dans le delta de la Rivière des perles a été retrouvé. La présence des navires portugais a aussi entraîné la baisse de la rigidité de la réglementation sur le commerce.

Later wokou

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Anti-wokou Ming soldiers wielding swords and shields

Erreur : La version française équivalente de {{Main}} est {{Article détaillé}}. According to the History of Ming, 30% of the 16th-century wokou were Japanese, and 70% were ethnic Chinese.[26] According to Censor Du Zhonglu, in a memorial dated 1553, the pirates were 10% barbarian people, 20% Ryukyuan people, and the rest from Fujian and Ningbo areas of China.[27]

According to Ray Huang, a Chinese-American historian, the Japanese pirates frequently collaborated with Chinese groups. Chinese explorers even led expeditions. However, the primary fighters were Japanese pirates. Japan served as a base for the Japanese pirates, and the Japanese provided all of the military expertise and equipment to the Japanese pirates.[28]

In attempts to centralize political control, the Ming dynasty enacted trade bans with the consensus being that "unrestricted trade would lead to chaos".[29] With maritime trade outlawed, China's navy was reduced, and as a result, they could not combat increased smuggling, which led to wokou control over the southeastern coast. Although wokou means "Japanese pirates", major wokou groups in the 16th century were led by Chinese traders whose livelihoods were halted by the Ming trade bans.[29] Because of the extent of corruption in the Ming court, many Chinese officials had relations with the pirates and benefited from the piracy, making it difficult for central authorities to control.[30]

Two well-known Chinese military figures involved in combating the wokou were Qi Jiguang and Yu Dayou. Yu Dayou was a Ming dynasty general assigned to defend the coast against the wokou. In 1553, a young man named Qi Jiguang became the Assistant Regional Military Commissioner of the Ming dynasty. He was assigned to "punish the bandits and guard the people", which meant taking on the wokou attacking the Ming east coast. At that time, he was 26 years old. On the eve of the following year, he was promoted to the full commissioner in Zhejiang because of his successes.[31]

The wokou even entered the Philippines before their extermination in the 17th century. Aparri in northern Luzon was established as a pirate city-state under the patronage of the wokou. The area around Aparri was the site of the 1582 Cagayan battles between wokou and Spanish soldiers.[32][33][34][35] The wokou were not limited to Aparri. The pirate-warlord Limahong attempted and failed to invade Manila and afterwards set up a temporary pirate state in Caboloan (Pangasinan) before the Spanish expelled him.[36]

Approximate number of pirate raids on Ming China by reign period and by region[37]
Reign period Region Total
Liaodong Shandong Jiangnan Zhejiang Fujian Guangdong
Hongwu (1358–1398) 1 7 5 21 3 9 46
Jianwen (1399–1402) 2 2
Yongle (1403–1424) 2 8 4 25 1 3 43
Hongxi (1425) 0
Xuande (1426–1435) 1 1 1 3
Zhengtong (1436–1449) 1 10 11
Jingtai (1450–1456) 1 1
Tianshun (1457–1464) 0
Chenghua (1465–1487) 1 1 2
Hongzhi (1488–1505) 1 1
Zhengde (1506–1521) 1 1 2
Jiajing (1522–1566) 5 207 192 158 39 601
Longqing (1567–1572) 19 19
Wanli (1573–1619) 1 5 9 15
Total 746

Controversy over identity

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Attacks by the wokou. Fourteenth-century painting

The identity of the wokou is subject to some debate, with various theories about the ethnic makeup and national origin of the pirates.

Professor Takeo Tanaka of University of Tokyo proposed in 1966 that the early wokou were Koreans living on these outlying islands. In the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, the compiled section for King Sejong relates that a vassal named Yi Sun-mong (Modèle:Korean, 1386–1449) told his monarch "I hear that in the late Goryeo kingdom period, wokou roaming (our country) and the peasants could not withstand them. However only 1 or 2 (out of 10) were caused by (real) Japanese. Some of our peasants imitatively wore Japanese clothing, formed a group and caused trouble... in order to stop all evils, there is nothing more urgent than the Hopae (personal identification system)".[38][39] However, Yi did not live during the Goryeo dynasty and was likely relating rumor or legend as opposed to solid documented evidence. Moreover, the thrust of Yi's speech concentrates on how national security was deteriorating and how it required special attention; it is possible he made use of unreliable information to support his point.[40] Yi's assertion is therefore not highly valued as a source for wokou by other researchers.[41] Goryeosa records 529 wokou raids during the 1223–1392 period but mentions the "fake Japanese" only three times.[40]

The current prevailing theory[42] is that of Shōsuke Murai, who demonstrated in 1988 that the early wokou came from multiple ethnic groups rather than one singular nation.[41] Murai writes that the wokou were "marginal men" living in politically unstable areas without national allegiances, akin to the Zomia thesis.[41] Supporters of this theory point out that one of the early wokou leaders, Ajibaldo, was variously claimed by period sources to be Mongolian, Japanese, Korean, and an "islander";[43] his name is apparently Korean and Mongolian in origin.[44]

See also

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Notes et références

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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wokou&oldid=1233020714

  1. ↑ a b et c Wakō Encyclopaedia Britannica
  2. ↑ Batten Bruce. "Gateway to Japan" 2006
  3. ↑ Kwan-wai So. Japanese piracy in Ming China, during the 16th century. Michigan State University Press, 1975. chapter 2.
  4. ↑ Wang Xiangrong, "Periodizing the History of Sino-Japanese Relations" Sino-Japanese Studies v. 2 (1980), 31
  5. ↑ (en) George Sansom, A History of Japan, 1334–1615, Stanford University Press, (ISBN 978-0804705257), p. 265
  6. ↑ Prof. Wang Yong, "Realistic and Fantastic Images of 'Dwarf Pirates': The Evolution of Ming Dynasty Perceptions of the Japanese." In Prof. Joshua A. Fogel, ed., Sagacious Monks and Bloodthirsty Warriors: Chinese Views of Japan in the Ming-Qing Period (EastBridge, 2002), 17–41
  7. ↑ Prof. Douglas R. Howland. Borders of Chinese Civilization: Geography and History at Empire's End (Duke University Press Books, 1996), p. 22
  8. ↑ Wang Yong, Image of Japan in Chinese history. Section 2 of Chapter 6. Nousangyoson bunka Kyōkai, 2000, (ISBN 9784540001710)
  9. ↑ Hiroki Ōta, Naval timbers of Goryeo. In connection with the Yuan Dynasty's invasion of Japan. pp.2-20. Geirinkai, 1988, Modèle:NAID
  10. ↑ Ōta, Kōki, Wakō: nihon afure katsudōshi (Bungeisha, 2004), p. 98 (太田弘毅『倭寇: 日本あふれ活動史』.) Modèle:In lang
  11. ↑ Kawazoe, Shōji, Taigai kankei no shiteki tenkai (Bunken shuppan, 1996) p. 167 (川添昭二「対外関係の史的展開」) Modèle:In lang.
  12. ↑ Yosaburō Takekoshi. The economic aspects of the history of the civilization of Japan. 1967. p. 344.
  13. ↑ a et b (en) Seong-rae Park, Science and Technology in Korean History: Excursions, Innovations, and Issues, Jain Pub Co, , p. 85
  14. ↑ 세종실록 4권, 세종 1년 6월 20일 National Institute of Korean History.
  15. ↑ 세종실록 4권, 세종 1년 6월 29일 National Institute of Korean History.
  16. ↑ 세종실록 4권, 세종 1년 7월 3일 National Institute of Korean History.
  17. ↑ 세종실록 4권, 세종 1년 7월 9일 National Institute of Korean History.
  18. ↑ 세종실록 4권, 세종 1년 7월 10일 National Institute of Korean History.
  19. ↑ 宗氏家譜, 対州編年略.
    應永二十六年己亥六月廿日、朝鮮將李從茂率戰艦二百二十七艘、卒一萬七千二百八十五人、到對馬州與良郡淺海浦。州兵拒之海濱不利。朝鮮兵到仁位郡、分道下陸、竟進屯糠獄。貞茂率州兵、到糠嶽下。侵矢石攻之。連戰數日、七月初一日、與左軍朴松戰大破之。朝鮮兵狼狽走海濱乘船、貞茂使海人放火。以燒賊船。齋藤、立石等發兵撃之。賊兵大潰而還。我兵戰死者百二十三人。斬賊二千五百餘級。
  20. ↑ Ōei Invasion. Encyclopedia Nipponica.
  21. ↑ Yang Shuiming (杨水明), 六鳌古城：倾听历史的涛声 « https://web.archive.org/web/20120426081914/http://qzweb.com.cn/gb/content/2003-11/23/content_1060030.htm »(Archive.org • Wikiwix • Archive.is • Google • Que faire ?), (The old Liu'ao Fortress: listening to the waves of history) Modèle:In lang.
  22. ↑ a b c d e et f Pierre-François Souyri, « 《Wakô》, les maîtres de la mer de Chine », L'Histoire, no 500,‎ , p. 46-47.
  23. ↑ John Darwin, Une histoire globale des empires: Après Tamerlan, de 1400 à nos jours, Paris, Nouveau monde éditions, , 719 p. (ISBN 9782380940121)
  24. ↑ (en) « Middle Age Piracy », sur www.piratesinfo.com (consulté le ).
  25. ↑ Fogel 2015, p. 310.
  26. ↑ History of Ming, Volume 322, "Biography Section 210: Japan (3)" (明史·卷三百二十二~卷三百二十三": Year Jiajing 26 1547) Modèle:In lang
  27. ↑ (en) Anthony Reid, Elusive pirates, pervasive smugglers violence and clandestine trade in the greater china seas, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press, , 18 p. (lire en ligne)
  28. ↑ « 1587, a year of no significance : The Ming dynasty in decline »,
  29. ↑ a et b Mann, C. C. (2011). 1493: Uncovering the new world Columbus created. Vintage.
  30. ↑ Kwan-wai So. Japanese piracy in Ming China, during the 16th century. Michigan State University Press, 1975. ch. 3.
  31. ↑ « Bio General Qi JiGuang », sur www.plumpub.com
  32. ↑ General Archive of the Indies, Philippines, file 29, bunch 3, number 62. Letter from Juan Bautista Román to the Viceroy of México, 25 June 1582
  33. ↑ General Archive of the Indies, Philippines, file 6, bunch 2, number 60. Letter from the Governor of the Philippines to the Viceroy of México, 20 July 1583
  34. ↑ General Archive of the Indies, Philippines, file 74, bunch 1, number 24. Letter from Bishop of the Philippines to the King of Spain, 18 January 1583
  35. ↑ [1] General Archive of the Indies, Council of the Indies, 339,L.1,F.286V-287R. Order to send men to the Philippines from Mexico, 14 June 1583
  36. ↑ (en) Igawa Kenji, at the Crossroads: Limahon and Wako in Sixteenth-Century Philippines, in Elusive Pirates, Persavie Smugglers, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press, , 78–82 p. (ISBN 9789888028115)
  37. ↑ Chen Maoheng (1957), Mingdai wokou kaolue [A brief history of Japanese pirates during Ming dynasty]. Beijing (originally published in 1934), cited in Higgins (1981), p. 29
  38. ↑ Tanaka, Takeo, Wakō to kangōbōeki (Shibundo, 1966) (田中健夫『倭寇と勘合貿易』) Modèle:In lang
  39. ↑ Modèle {{Lien web}} : paramètre « titre » manquant. (zh-Hant) [2] : « 臣聞前朝之季, 倭寇興行, 民不聊生, 然其間倭人不過一二, 而本國之民, 假著倭服, 成黨作亂.. 救弊之要, 莫切於號牌。 »
  40. ↑ a et b P'ar-hyŏn Chang (장팔현), PhD., « Were the Wokou made up mostly of Goryeo and Choson Koreans then? », Chungbuk National University : « 그러나 우리 측 사료인 ‘고려사’에는 단 3건의 가왜(假倭)기록이 있을 뿐이다. 1223년부터 1392년까지 169년간 총 529회의 침입에 겨우 3번의 ‘가왜’ 기록이 있을 뿐인데, 이를 보고 왜구의 주체를 고려인으로 봄은 어불성설이고 침소봉대를 해도 너무 지나치다고 볼 수 있다. ‘조선왕조실록’에도 왜구침구 기사가 무려 312건이 나오는데 이 기사 어디에도 조선인이 왜구라는 말은 없다. »
  41. ↑ a b et c Murai, Shōsuke, Chūsei wajinden (Iwanami, 1993) (村井章介『中世倭人伝』) Modèle:In lang
  42. ↑ Hiroshi Mitani. "A Protonation-state and its 'Unforgettable Other'." in Helen Hardacre, ed., New directions in the study of Meiji Japan. Brill. p. 295
  43. ↑ (ja) Takashi Tōgō et Shin, illustr. Ueda, Etoki zōhyō ashigaru tachi no tatakai, Kodansha, , 48–51 p. :

    « 東郷隆, 上田信 『【絵解き】雑兵足軽たちの戦い』 »
  44. ↑ Barbara Seyock. "Pirates and Traders". In Trade and Transfer Across the East Asian "Mediterranean", Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005. p. 95.

Annexes

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Bibliographie

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Mann, C. C. (2011). 1493: Uncovering the new world Columbus created. Vintage.161-163

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