Utilisateur:Amibreton/Brouillon
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/EU_Unemployment.svg/300px-EU_Unemployment.svg.png)
Les pays de l'Union européenne (et de l'Europe de manière plus générale) ont connu à partir des années 1970 des niveaux importants de chômage. La hausse a débuté à la suite des deux chocs pétroliers de 1973 et 1979.
Si les États-Unis ont également connu une forte hausse du taux de chômage, surtout à partir des années 1970, ce taux est redescendu une première fois à un niveau faible à la fin des années 1990, puis une deuxième fois à partir de 2005 avec la fin de la crise de la bulle internet. Mais très vite la crise des subprimes de 2006-2007 entraîne la krach de l'automne 2008. La récession qui atteint les Etats-Unis dès la fin 2007, s'étend notamment à l'Europe en 2008. En 2009, presque tous les pays européens sont atteints.
Cette crise, d'une ampleur inédite aux Etats-Unis depuis la grande dépression, s'accompagne d'une montée extrêmement forte et rapide du chômage.
Historique
[modifier | modifier le code]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Unemployment_European_Union_2013M02.svg/300px-Unemployment_European_Union_2013M02.svg.png)
Au sein de l'Union européenne certains pays ont connu au début des années 2000 un retour à des situations de quasi plein emploi comme l'Irlande, le Royaume-Uni, ou les Pays-Bas, tandis que d'autres pays sont restés à un niveau relativement élevé de chômage comme l'Allemagne et la France ou l'Espagne. Les « nouveaux entrants » de l'Union européenne, pays de l'ex-Bloc de l'Est, ont eux connu un début de décrue du chômage à partir du milieu des années 2000.
La crise financière, qui débute à la mi-2007 par la crise des prêts hypothécaires aux États-Unis (crise des subprimes), s'étend ensuite progressivement à l’ensemble des marchés financiers, et finit par toucher l’économie réelle à la fin de l'année 2008.
À cette date, de nombreuses économies entrent en récession sous l'effet d'une part de la contraction des échanges extérieurs et d'autre part du moindre dynamisme des demandes internes. Cette contraction s'accompagne de coupes massives de l'emploi.Le taux de chômage dans l'Union européenne (UE 27) progresse fortement passant de 7,0 % en moyenne en 2007 à 9,6 % au début de l'année 2010.
La crise de la dette des états européens les plus endettés éclate au même moment et conduit à des mesures de restrictions en Grèce, en Irlande, en Espagne, ou au Portugal. Il s’ensuit une récession pour ces pays accompagnée d'une hausse très forte du chômage. À la fin 2012 le taux de chômage atteignait quasiment 27 % en Espagne et en Grèce. Et début 2013, le taux de chômage atteint 12 % dans l'Union européenne[1].
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Unemployment_rate_United_states_-_Europe_1993-2013.png/300px-Unemployment_rate_United_states_-_Europe_1993-2013.png)
En dehors des pays les plus touchés par la crise de la dette, le chômage progresse à nouveau depuis la fin-2010 en France ou aux Pays-Bas et dans certains pays de l'Est notamment. Le chômage reste au niveau élevé atteint au début de 2010 dans un nombre important d'autres pays dont le Royaume-Uni, le Danemark, la Suède et la Finlande. Seule l’Allemagne connaît une évolution radicalement différente avec un repli sensible du niveau du chômage dont le taux ne dépasse pas 4,8 % en décembre 2014[2].
En décembre 2014, Eurostat estime que 24,06 millions d’hommes et de femmes étaient au chômage dans l’Union européenne (taux de 9,9 %), dont 18,13 millions dans la zone euro (taux de 11,4 %). Parmi les États membres, les taux de chômage les plus faibles ont été enregistrés en Allemagne (4,8 %) et en Autriche (4,9 %), et les plus élevés en Grèce (25,8 % en octobre 2014) et en Espagne (23,7 %). La France se trouve environ en moyenne de l’Union européenne avec 10,3 %[2].
En décembre 2014, le taux de chômage des jeunes (moins de 25 ans) s’est établi à 21,4 % dans l’Union européenne et à 23,0 % dans la zone euro, contre respectivement 23,1 % et 23,9 % en décembre 2013. Il s’agit du taux le plus bas enregistré pour l’Union européenne depuis septembre 2011 et pour la zone euro depuis juin 2012. Les taux les plus bas en décembre 2014 ont été observés en Allemagne (7,2 %), en Autriche (9,0 %) ainsi qu’aux Pays-Bas (9,6 %), et les plus élevés en Espagne (51,4 %), en Grèce (50,6 % en octobre 2014), en Croatie (44,8 % au quatrième trimestre 2014) et en Italie (42,0%). La France se trouve légèrement au-dessus de la moyenne avec 25,2 %[2].
Aux États-Unis la crise a entraîné ce qu'il est convenu d'appeler la « grande récession »[3]. À l'occasion de cette crise le chômage a dépassé 10 % fin 2009, soit un niveau supérieur à celui observé alors dans l’Union européenne. Un tel niveau n'avait pas été atteint aux États-Unis depuis la récession du début des années 1980[4].
Le retour à une croissance même relativement incertaine a permis aux États-Unis d'enregistrer ensuite une décrue du chômage qui atteint désormais moins de 8 %[5]. Bien que souvent jugé limité ce recul fait ressortir par différence la dégradation de la situation dans l'Union européenne où sous l'effet d'une croissance atone et de mesures restrictives, le chômage continue de progresser, plusieurs pays connaissant un chômage de masse.
Chiffres
[modifier | modifier le code]Chômage officiel
[modifier | modifier le code]Le chômage officiel répertorie la différence entre le nombre d'actifs (au sens du BIT) et le nombre d'employés. Ce chiffre ne prend pas en compte le sous-emploi.
Pays ou zone | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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9,2 | 9,0 | 8,2 | 7,2 | 7,0 | 8,9 | 9,6 | 9,6 | 10,5 | 10,8 | 10,2 | 9,1 | 8.6 | 7.6 |
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9,2 | 9,1 | 8,3 | 7,5 | 7,5 | 9,6 | 10,2 | 10,1 | 11,3 | 12,0 | 11,6 | 10,5 | 9.6 | 8.5 |
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10,4 | 11,2 | 10,1 | 8,5 | 7,4 | 7,6 | 7,0 | 5,8 | 5,4 | 5,2 | 5,0 | 4,6 | 4.1 | 3.8 |
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4,9 | 5,2 | 4,8 | 4,4 | 3,8 | 4,8 | 4,4 | 4,2 | 4,3 | 4,9 | 5.6 | 5,8 | 6.0 | 5.5 |
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8,4 | 8,5 | 8,3 | 7,5 | 7,0 | 7,9 | 8,3 | 7,2 | 7,6 | 8,4 | 8,5 | 8,3 | 7.8 | 7.1 |
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12,1 | 10,1 | 9,0 | 6,9 | 5,6 | 6,8 | 10,3 | 11,3 | 12,3 | 13,0 | 11,6 | 9,4 | 7.6 | 6.2 |
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4,6 | 5,3 | 4,6 | 3,9 | 3,7 | 5,4 | 6,3 | 7,9 | 11,9 | 15,9 | 16,1 | 15,6 | 13.0 | 11.1 |
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13,9 | 13,0 | 11,6 | 10,0 | 8,9 | 9,6 | 12,3 | 13,9 | 16,1 | 17,3 | 17,0 | 16,6 | 13.3 | 11.1 |
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5,5 | 4,8 | 3,9 | 3,8 | 3,4 | 6,0 | 7,5 | 7,6 | 7,5 | 7,0 | 6.6 | 6,1 | 6.2 | 5.7 |
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11,0 | 9,2 | 8,5 | 8,2 | 11,3 | 17,9 | 19,9 | 21,4 | 24,8 | 26,1 | 24,5 | 22,1 | 19.6 | 17.2 |
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10,1 | 8,0 | 5,9 | 4,6 | 5,5 | 13,5 | 16,7 | 12,3 | 10,0 | 8,6 | 7.4 | 6.2 | 6.8 | 5.8 |
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8,8 | 8,4 | 7,7 | 6,9 | 6,4 | 8,2 | 8,4 | 7,8 | 7,7 | 8,2 | 8,7 | 9,4 | 8.8 | 8.6 |
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8,9 | 8,9 | 8,8 | 8,0 | 7,4 | 9,1 | 9,3 | 9,2 | 9,8 | 10,3 | 10,3 | 10,4 | 10.1 | 9.4 |
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10,6 | 10,0 | 9,0 | 8,4 | 7,8 | 9,6 | 12,7 | 17,9 | 24,5 | 27,5 | 26.5 | 24.9 | 23.6 | 21.5 |
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6,1 | 7,2 | 7,5 | 7,4 | 7,8 | 10,0 | 11,2 | 11,0 | 11,0 | 10,2 | 7.7 | 6.8 | 5.1 | 4.2 |
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4,5 | 4,4 | 4,5 | 4,7 | 6,4 | 12,0 | 13,9 | 14,7 | 14,7 | 13,1 | 11,4 | 9,4 | 7.9 | 6.7 |
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8,0 | 7,7 | 6,8 | 6,1 | 6,7 | 7,8 | 8,4 | 8,4 | 10,7 | 12,2 | 12.7 | 11,4 | 11.7 | |
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11,7 | 10,0 | 7,0 | 6,1 | 7,7 | 17,5 | 19,5 | 16,2 | 15,0 | 11,9 | 10.8 | 10,2 | 9.6 | 8.7 |
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10,9 | 8,3 | 5,8 | 4,3 | 5,8 | 13,8 | 17,8 | 15,4 | 13,4 | 11,8 | 10,4 | 9,1 | 7.9 | 7.1 |
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5,0 | 4,6 | 4,6 | 4,2 | 4,9 | 5,1 | 4,6 | 4,8 | 5,1 | 5,9 | 6,0 | 6,1 | 6.3 | 5.6 |
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7,2 | 6,9 | 6,8 | 6,5 | 6,0 | 6,9 | 6,9 | 6,4 | 6,3 | 6,4 | 5,8 | 5,3 | 4.7 | 4.0 |
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5,7 | 5,9 | 5,0 | 4,2 | 3,7 | 4,4 | 5,0 | 5,0 | 5,8 | 7,3 | 7,4 | 6,9 | 6.0 | 4.9 |
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19,1 | 17,9 | 13,9 | 9,6 | 7,1 | 8,1 | 9,7 | 9,7 | 10,1 | 10,3 | 9,0 | 7,5 | 6.2 | 4.9 |
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7,8 | 8,8 | 8,8 | 9,2 | 8,7 | 10,7 | 12,0 | 12,9 | 15,8 | 16,4 | 14,1 | 12,6 | 11.2 | 9.0 |
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8,3 | 7,9 | 7,1 | 5,3 | 4,4 | 6,7 | 7,3 | 6,7 | 7,0 | 7,0 | 6,1 | 5,1 | 4.0 | 2.9 |
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8,0 | 7,1 | 7,2 | 6,4 | 5,6 | 6,5 | 7,0 | 7,2 | 6,8 | 7,1 | 6,8 | 6,8 | 5.9 | 4.9 |
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4,7 | 4,8 | 5,4 | 5,3 | 5,6 | 7,5 | 7,8 | 8,1 | 7,9 | 7,6 | 6.1 | 5.3 | 4.8 | 4.4 |
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18,4 | 16,4 | 13,5 | 11,2 | 9,6 | 12,1 | 14,5 | 13,7 | 14,0 | 14,2 | 13,2 | 11,5 | 9.6 | 8.1 |
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6,3 | 6,5 | 6,0 | 4,9 | 4,4 | 5,9 | 7,3 | 8,2 | 8,9 | 10,1 | 9,7 | 9,1 | 8.0 | 6.6 |
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7,4 | 7,7 | 7,1 | 6,1 | 6,2 | 8,3 | 8,6 | 7,8 | 8,0 | 8,0 | 7,9 | 7,4 | 6.9 | 6.7 |
Pays candidats | ||||||||||||||
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- | 9,5 | 9,0 | 9,1 | 10,0 | 13,0 | 11,1 | 9,1 | 8,4 | 9,0 | 10,0 | 11.4 | 13.3 | |
Source : Eurostat - Taux de chômage par sexe et par groupe d'âge - moyennes annuelles, % [4]), Le taux de chômage diagramme Google |
Chômage inofficiel ou sous-emploi
[modifier | modifier le code]La population en sous-emploi est constituée de deux groupes de personnes :
- celles qui travaillent à temps partiel (moins de 35 heures), qui souhaitent travailler davantage :
- et effectuent des démarches de recherche d’emploi (ou en ont trouvé un qui commence dans les 3 mois) ;
- ou sont disponibles pour le faire (qu’elles soient à la recherche d’un emploi ou non).
- celles (à temps plein ou à temps partiel) qui ont involontairement travaillé moins que d’habitude, pour cause de chômage partiel ou d’intempéries par exemple.
Selon l'institut Eurostat l'Union européenne comptait 9,2 millions de travailleurs souhaitant travailler plus d'heures ainsi que 11 millions de travailleurs non-recensés dans la population active[7].
Pays | Travailleurs à temps partiel souhaitant travailler plus d’heures Milliers |
Personnes disponibles pour travailler mais ne recherchant pas un emploi Milliers |
Personnes recherchant un emploi mais temporairement indisponibles Milliers |
Chomeurs Milliers |
---|---|---|---|---|
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158 | 100 | 60 | 369 |
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29 | 270 | 26 | 410 |
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27 | 62 | 17 | 367 |
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88 | 69 | 24 | 219 |
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1,810 | 582 | 508 | 2,316 |
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10 | 41 | 3 | 71 |
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147 | 44 | 13 | 316 |
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190 | 91 | 36 | 1,204 |
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1,385 | 1,071 | 236 | 5,769 |
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1,144 | 285 | 444 | 3,002 |
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605 | 2,975 | 111 | 2,744 |
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20 | 15 | 3 | 52 |
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44 | 67 | 6 | 155 |
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37 | 16 | 197 | |
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5 | 13 | 2 | 13 |
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88 | 215 | 11 | 476 |
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5 | 5 | 12 | |
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138 | 308 | 85 | 469 |
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148 | 144 | 39 | 189 |
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344 | 632 | 102 | 1,749 |
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256 | 232 | 29 | 860 |
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239 | 458 | 701 | |
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18 | 13 | 90 | |
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37 | 41 | 13 | 378 |
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75 | 111 | 63 | 207 |
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237 | 134 | 101 | 403 |
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1,907 | 774 | 334 | 2,511 |
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81 | 67 | 22 | 85 |
Bureaux ou services de l'emploi dans l'Union européenne
[modifier | modifier le code]Allemagne | Bundesagentur für Arbeit et Bundesverwaltungsamt |
Autriche | Arbeitsmarktservice (de) (AMS) |
Belgique | VDAB, FOREM, ORBEM et ADG |
Bulgarie | Агенцията по заетоста предоставя (National Employment Agency) |
Chypre | Labour Office |
Danemark | Arbejdsmarkedsstyrelsen et Arbejdsformidlingen |
Espagne | Instituto Nacional de Empleo |
Estonie | Tööturuamet |
Finlande | Työministeriö/Arbetsministeriet |
France | Pôle emploi |
Grèce | OAED |
Hongrie | Állami Foglalkoztatási Szolgálat |
Irlande | FAS - Training and Employment Authority |
Italie | Ministero del lavoro e delle politiche sociali |
Lettonie | Nodarbinatibas valsts agentura |
Lituanie | Lietuvos darbo birža et Lietuvos darbo federacija |
Luxembourg | Administration de l'Emploi |
Malte | Korporazzjoni ghax |
Pays-Bas | Centrum voor Werk en Inkomen (nl) |
Pologne | Polskie Publiczne Służby Zatrudnienia et Wojewódzki Urząd Pracy |
Portugal | Instituto do Emprego e Formação Profissional |
République tchèque | MPSV-Správa služeb zaměstnanosti |
Roumanie | Agentia Nationala pentru Ocuparea Fortei de Munca (Agence nationale pour l’occupation de la Force de travail) |
Royaume-Uni | Jobcentre Plus et (DEL) Noord Ierland |
Slovaquie | UPSVAR et Narodny urad prace |
Slovénie | Zavod Republike Slovenije za zaposlovanje |
Suède | Arbetsmarknadsstyrelsen et Arbetsmarknadsverket |
Références
[modifier | modifier le code]- [1]
- Eurostat communiqué de presse (30 janvier 2015)
- Great Recession
- Commons:Image:Us unemployment rates 1950 2005.png
- Bureau of Labor Statistics
- http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=fr&pcode=tipsun20&plugin=1
- http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-19042013-BP/FR/3-19042013-BP-FR.PDF
- [2]
Articles connexes
[modifier | modifier le code]- Chômage
- Taux de chômage
- Union européenne
- Chômage en Belgique
- Chômage en France
- Marché du travail en France
- Économie de l'Union européenne
{{Portail|économie|société|Union européenne}}
Catégorie:Économie de l'Union européenne Catégorie:Chômage Chômage
Historique
[modifier | modifier le code]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Carte_du_taux_de_ch%C3%B4mage_en_Europe_%28Fe%2C_2012%29.png/415px-Carte_du_taux_de_ch%C3%B4mage_en_Europe_%28Fe%2C_2012%29.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Unemployment_European_Union_2013M02.svg/300px-Unemployment_European_Union_2013M02.svg.png)
Les pays de l'Union européenne (et de l'Europe de manière plus générale) ont connu à partir des années 1970 des niveaux importants de chômage. La hausse a débuté suite aux deux chocs pétroliers de 1973 et 1979.
Si les États-Unis ont également connu une forte hausse du taux de chômage, surtout à partir des années 1970, ce taux est redescendu une première fois à un niveau faible à la fin des années 1990, puis une deuxième fois à partir de 2005 avec la fin de la crise de la bulle internet.
Au sein de l'Union européenne certains pays ont connu au début des années 2000 un retour à des situations de quasi plein emploi comme l'Irlande, le Royaume-Uni, ou les Pays-Bas, tandis que d'autres pays sont restés à un niveau relativement élevé de chômage comme l'Allemagne et la France ou l'Espagne. Les « nouveaux entrants » de l'Union européenne, pays de l'ex-Bloc de l'Est, ont eux connu un début de décrue du chômage à partir du milieu des années 2000. Au début de 2008 le taux de chômage dans l'Union Européenne atteint son niveau le plus bas à 6,8%.
Mais c'est alors que la crise financière, initiée aux États-Unis à la mi-2007 (crise des prêts hypothécaires ou subprimes),se répercute et débouche sur la Crise bancaire et financière de l'automne 2008, traduisant un risque de confiance généralisé, avec une menace d'effondrement boursier. Les gouvernements aux Etats-Unis et dans de nombreux pays européens vont soutenir les banques en difficulté. Mais cette crise financière crée les conditions d'une profonde crise économique qui touche tous les pays et s'approfondit à la fin de l'année 2008.
De nombreux pays commencent alors à entrer en récession sous l'effet d'une part de la contraction des échanges extérieurs et d'autre part du moindre dynamisme des demandes internes. Les plans de relance de fin 2008 et début 2009 ne peuvent enrayer le recul de l'activité. La crise du crédit et des débouchés entraîne des coupes massives de l'emploi. Le taux de chômage dans l'Union européenne (UE 27) progresse fortement passant de 7,0% en moyenne en 2007 à 9,6% au début de l'année 2010.
La crise de la dette des états européens les plus endettés éclate alors. La crise initiée en Grèce conduit à des mesures de restrictions budgétaires sans précédent. La crise touche aussi l'Irlande, l'Espagne, et le Portugal. Ceci se traduit par une profonde récession dans ces pays accompagnée d'une hausse très forte du chômage. La hausse a été continue depuis lors, le taux de chômage dépassant désormais nettement les 25% en Espagne et en Grèce.
Dans les années qui ont suivi le sommet atteint à la mi-2010, le taux de chômage s'est stabilisé dans de nombreux pays, traduisant la prolongation de la crise et s'alimentant aux politiques budgétaires restrictives.
Le chômage est resté élevé à son niveau de 2010 dans un nombre important d'autres pays, Le chômage reste au niveau élevé atteint au début de 2010 dont le Royaume-Uni, le Danemark, la Suède et la Finlande.
Le chômage va continuer de progresserAlots que le chômage continue de progresserDans les autres pays le chômage tend
À la fin 2012 . Et début 2013, le taux de chômage atteint 12% dans l’Union européenne[1].
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Unemployment_rate_United_states_-_Europe_1993-2013.png/300px-Unemployment_rate_United_states_-_Europe_1993-2013.png)
En dehors des pays les plus touchés par la crise de la dette, le chômage progresse à nouveau depuis la fin-2010 en France ou aux Pays-Bas et dans certains pays de l'Est notamment. Seule l’Allemagne connaît une évolution radicalement différente avec un repli sensible du niveau du chômage dont le taux ne dépasse pas 5,5% à la fin 2012.
Aux États-Unis la crise a entraîné ce qu'il est convenu d'appeler la « grande récession »[2]. À l'occasion de cette crise le chômage a dépassé 10% fin 2009, soit un niveau supérieur à celui observé alors dans l’Union européenne. Un tel niveau n'avait pas été atteint aux États-Unis depuis la récession du début des années 1980[3].
Le retour à une croissance même relativement incertaine a permis aux États-Unis d'enregistrer ensuite une décrue du chômage qui atteint désormais moins de 8% [4]. Bien que souvent jugé limité ce recul fait ressortir par différence la dégradation de la situation dans l'Union européenne où sous l'effet d'une croissance atone et de mesures restrictives, le chômage continue de progresser, plusieurs pays connaissant un chômage de masse .
AfriPop
[modifier | modifier le code]Projet AfriPop The AfriPop project | |
![]() | |
Situation | |
---|---|
Région | International |
Création | |
Type | Organisation internationale |
Siège | Gainesville, Florida |
Langue | Anglais |
Organisation | |
Coordinateur | Dr. Andrew J Tatem |
Organisations affiliées | Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida |
Site web | http://www.afripop.org/ |
modifier ![]() |
-
Mali
-
Ethiopie
The AfriPop Project, is a non-profit project primarily funded by the Fondation Philippe Wiener - Maurice Anspach, Belgium. AfriPop represents a collaboration between the University of Florida, États-Unis, the University of Brussels, Belgium and the Malaria Public Health & Epidemiology Group, Centre for Geographic Medicine, Kenya.
Legend
[modifier | modifier le code]Hab./km2
Essai pour Insee indices et séries
[modifier | modifier le code]Marché du travail, chômage, emploi
* Marché du travail, chômage, emploi o Demandeurs d'emploi inscrits et offres d'emploi collectées et satisfaites à Pôle emploi + Demandeurs d'emploi inscrits à Pôle emploi # Demandeurs d'emploi inscrits en fin de mois à Pôle emploi par catégorie (A, B, C, D, E) - séries CVS * Catégorie A </bsweb/servlet/bsweb?action=BS_SERIE&BS_IDBANK=001572354&BS_IDARBO=02000000000000>
* Catégorie B </bsweb/servlet/bsweb?action=BS_SERIE&BS_IDBANK=001572355&BS_IDARBO=02000000000000>
Marché du travail, chômage, emploi
Marché du travail, chômage, emploi
[modifier | modifier le code]Demandeurs d'emploi inscrits et offres d'emploi collectées et satisfaites à Pôle emploi
[modifier | modifier le code]Demandeurs d'emploi inscrits à Pôle emploi
[modifier | modifier le code]Demandeurs d'emploi inscrits en fin de mois à Pôle emploi par catégorie (A, B, C, D, E) - séries CVS
[modifier | modifier le code]Catégorie A [5]
[modifier | modifier le code]* Catégorie B [6]
o Indicateurs complémentaires sur le marché du travail + Emploi, chômage et activité au sens du BIT dans la population de 15 ans ou plus # Personnes en emploi * Taux d'emploi, CVS, France métropolitaine o Ensemble + Ensemble </bsweb/servlet/bsweb?action=BS_SERIE&BS_IDBANK=001506651&BS_IDARBO=02000000000000> + des 15 à 64 ans </bsweb/servlet/bsweb?action=BS_SERIE&BS_IDBANK=001506654&BS_IDARBO=02000000000000>
Innovation de produit et de service
[modifier | modifier le code]L'innovation de produit se comprend dans son sens générique. Elle correspond à l'introduction d'un "bien ou service nouveau ou sensiblement amélioré ...". Sont donc concernés non seulement les biens issus de l'activité artisanale ou industrielle, mais aussi les activités de services pour lequelles les innovations peuvent inclure des améliorations sensibles dans la manière où le service est rendu en termes par exemple d'efficience ou de rapidité. On peut citer la forte innovativité dans les activités de services bancaires, où par example le recours à internet a permis d'ouvrir de nouveaux services à la clientèle. Les innovations concernant les biens produits quant à elles peuvent procéder de l'utilisation de nouveaux composants ou de nouvelles matières, ou résulter de nouvelles spécifications techniques. Dans les activités de service à forte composante technologique (télécommunications, services informatiques, activités audio-visuelles) l'innovation est aussi fréquente que dans les industries de haute technologie avec lesquelles elles travaillent souvent en synergie. Les notions d'innovation de produit et de service y sont étroitement associées.
ref à inclure : Services et industrie : différents types d’innovations pour améliorer les performances Insee
Bibliographie
[modifier | modifier le code]- Michel Volle, « Pourquoi faire l'histoire de la statistique ? », Courrier des statistiques n° 1, janvier 1977
- INSEE, Pour une histoire de la statistique, Economica, 1987, (ISBN 2-7178-1260-1)
- Michel Volle, Histoire de la statistique industrielle, Economica, 1982, (ISBN 2-7178-0520-6)
- Alain Desrosières, La politique des grands nombres : histoire de la raison statistique, La Découverte, 2000, (ISBN 2-7071-3353-1)
Liens externes
[modifier | modifier le code]- Institutions françaises
- INSEE : insee.fr (Le site principal de l’INSEE), sirene.tm.fr (Le portail SIRENE de l’INSEE à destination des professionnels)
- Conseil national de l'information statistique (CNIS) : cnis.fr
- Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libertés (CNIL) : cnil.fr
- Institut national d'études démographiques (INED) :ined.fr
- Institut français de l’environnement (IFEN) - Ministère de l’environnement, de l’écologie et du développement durable
- Service des études et des statistiques industrielles (SESSI) - Ministère de l’industrie
- Direction de l'animation de la recherche, des études et de la statistique(DARES) - Ministère de l’emploi
- École nationale de la statistique et de l’administration économique (ENSAE)
- École nationale de la statistique et de l’analyse de l'information (ENSAI)
- Portails français non institutionnels
Ebauche article grammaire du grec moderne
[modifier | modifier le code]- (en) Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en anglais intitulé « Wikipedia:Translate us » (voir la liste des auteurs).
source · https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Greek_grammar ἰModèle:Main article Modèle:Side box
La grammaire du grec moderne (en grec : η γραμματική της (νἐας) Ελληνικής / i gramatikἰ tis neas ellinikἰs) parlé" aujourd'hui en Grèce et à Chypre, est essentiellement celle du grec démotique. Elle contient aussi cependant des caractères hérités de la Katharévousa,la langue officielle et enseignée durant la plus grande partie des XIXème et XXème siècles qui visait à reproduire le grec classique grec ancien. Le grec moderne a aussi connu comme beaucoup d'autres langues indo-européennes modernes, une évolution morphologique vers une forme plus analytique que synthétique.
The grammar of Standard Modern Greek, as spoken in present-day Greece and Cyprus, is basically that of Demotic Greek, but it has also assimilated certain elements of Katharevousa, the archaic, learned variety of Greek imitating Classical Greek forms, which used to be the official language of Greece through much of the 19th and 20th centuries.[5][6] Modern Greek grammar has preserved many features of Ancient Greek, but has also undergone changes in a similar direction as many other modern Indo-European languages, from more synthetic to more analytic structures.
Caractéristiques générales
[modifier | modifier le code]Syntaxe
[modifier | modifier le code]L'ordre le plus fréquent en grec est sujet-verbe-complément, mais ce peut(être aussi indifféremment, verbe-sujet-complément, ou un ordre différent. Dans les groupes nominaux, l'adjectif précède le nom (par exemple, το μεγάλο σπίτι, [to meˈɣalo ˈspiti], 'la grande maison'), et le possesseur vient ensuite (par exemple, το σπίτι μου, [to ˈspiti mu], 'ma maison'; το σπίτι του Νίκου 'la maison de Nikos').
Le sujet peut-être omis dans la mesure où il peut être facilement inféré par le contexte de la phrase. Alors que l'ordre des principaux éléments (sujet, verbe, complément) est relativement flexible, d'autres éléments "clitiques" sont rattachés au verbe pour former avec lui un groupe strictement ordonné. Ceci s'applique notamment aux ... pronoms, aux formes indiquant la négation ou celles indiquant le temps ou le mode du verbe θα [θa], and the subjunctive particle να [na]. De la m^me façon, les pronoms sont enclitiques par rapport aux noms qu'ils modifient.
General characteristics
[modifier | modifier le code]Syntax
[modifier | modifier le code]The predominant word order in Greek is SVO (subject–verb–object), but word order is quite freely variable, with VSO and other orders as frequent alternatives.[7] Within the noun phrase, adjectives precede the noun (for example, το μεγάλο σπίτι, [to meˈɣalo ˈspiti], 'the big house'), while possessors follow it (for example, το σπίτι μου, [to ˈspiti mu], 'my house'; το σπίτι του Νίκου 'Nick's house').[8] Alternative constructions involving the opposite order of constituents are possible as a marked option (e.g. το σπίτι το μεγάλο 'the big house'; του Νίκου το σπίτι 'Nick's house')[9]
Greek is a pro-drop language, i.e. subjects are typically not overtly expressed whenever they are inferable from context.[10] Whereas the word order of the major elements within the clause is fairly free, certain grammatical elements attach to the verb as clitics and form a rigidly ordered group together with it. This applies particularly to unstressed object pronouns, negation particles, the tense particle θα [θa], and the subjunctive particle να [na]. Likewise, possessive pronouns are enclitic to the nouns they modify.
Morphology
[modifier | modifier le code]Greek is a largely synthetic (inflectional) language. Although the complexity of the inflectional system has been somewhat reduced in comparison to Ancient Greek, there is also a considerable degree of continuity in the morphological system, and Greek still has a somewhat archaic character compared with other Indo-European languages of Europe.[11] Nouns, adjectives and verbs are each divided into several inflectional classes (declension classes and conjugation classes), which have different sets of endings. In the nominals, the ancient inflectional system is well preserved, with the exception of the loss of one case, the dative, and the restructuring of several of the inflectional classes. In the verbal system, the loss of synthetic inflectional categories is somewhat greater, and several new analytic (periphrastic) constructions have evolved instead.
Characteristics of the Balkan language area
[modifier | modifier le code]Modern Greek shares several syntactic characteristics with its geographical neighbours, with which it forms the so-called Balkan language area (Sprachbund).[12] Among these characteristics are:
- The lack of an infinitive. In Greek, verbal complementation in contexts where English would use an infinitive is typically formed with the help of finite (subjunctive) verb forms (e.g. θέλω να πάω, [ˈθelo na ˈpao], literally 'I-want that I-go', i.e. 'I want to go').
- The merger of the dative and the genitive case. In Greek, indirect objects are expressed partly through genitive forms of nouns or pronouns, and partly through a periphrasis consisting of the preposition σε ([se], 'to') and the accusative.
- The use of a future construction derived from the verb 'want' (θέλει να [ˈθeli na] → θα [θa]).
- A tendency to use pre-verbal clitic object pronouns redundantly (clitic doubling), doubling an object that is also expressed elsewhere in the clause: for example, το είδα το αυτοκίνητο ([to ˈiða to aftoˈcinito], 'I saw it, the car", literally 'It I-saw the car').
On the other hand, one prominent feature of the Balkan language area that Greek does not share is the use of a postposed definite article. The Greek article (like the Ancient Greek one) stands before the noun.
Accent
[modifier | modifier le code]Modern Greek has a stress accent, similar to English. The accent is notated with a stroke (΄) over the accented vowel and is called οξεία (oxeia, "acute") or τόνος (tonos, "accent") in Greek. The former term is taken from one of the accents used in polytonic orthography which officially became obsolete in 1982.
Most monosyllabic words take no accent such as in το ([to], "the") and ποιος ([pços], "who"). Exceptions include the conjunction ή ([i], "or"), the interrogative adverbs πώς ([pos], "how") and πού ([pu], "where") in both direct and indirect questions and some fixed expressions such as πού και πού ([pu ce pu], "occasionally") and πώς και πώς ([pos ce pos], "cravingly"). Moreover, weak personal pronouns are accented in cases where they may be mistaken for enclitics (see below). For example, ο σκύλος μού γάβγισε ([o ˈscilos mu ˈɣavʝise], "the dog barked at me") instead of ο σκύλος μου γάβγισε ([o ˈsciloz‿mu ˈɣavʝise], "my dog barked")[13].
Enclitics are pronounced very closely to the previous word. Most enclitics are weak personal pronouns. Enclitics do not modify the accent of the previous word when this word is accented on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, for example οδηγός μας ([oðiˈɣoz‿mas], "our driver") and βιβλίο σου ([viˈvlio‿su], "your book"). However, when the previous word is accented on the antepenultimate syllable, the enclitic causes the ultimate syllable to be accented too. For example, δάσκαλος ([ˈðaskalos], "teacher") but δάσκαλός μου ([ˌðaskaˈloz‿mu], "my teacher") and φόρεσε ([ˈforese], "wear (sc)") but φόρεσέ το ([ˌforeˈse‿to], "wear it"). Finally, enclitics are accented only when they precede another enclitic and these two determine an imperative accented on the penultimate syllable. For example, φέρε μού το ([ˌfere‿ˈmu‿to], "bring it to me")[13].
In digraphs which are pronounced as simple phonemes such as αι [e], οι [i] and ει [i] and in the case of αυ ([af] or [av]) and ευ ([ef] or [ev]), the accent is placed on the second letter as in αί, εί, αύ etc. When the accent is placed on the first letter, the sequence is pronounced as an accented diphthong, for example άι [ˈai̯] as in γάιδαρος ([ˈɣai̯ðaros], "donkey"). When the second letter takes a diaeresis, the sequence is often pronounced as a diphthong, for example αϊ [ai̯] as in παϊδάκια ([pai̯ˈðaca], "ribs"). Finally, when the accent is placed on the second letter together with diaeresis, the vowels are pronounced separately and the second vowel is accented, for example αΐ [aˈi] as in σαΐτα ([saˈita], "paper airplane").
As in Ancient Greek, in Modern Greek the accent cannot be placed before the antepenultimate syllable (Greek: νόμος της τρισυλλαβίας, law of limitation, historically called Dreimorengesetz). As a result, in many imparisyllabic nouns, i.e. nouns that do not have the same number of syllables in all their inflections, an antepenultimate accent moves to the next syllable when a syllable is added. For example, (sc) (sc) μάθημα ([ˈmaθima], "lesson") but (sc) (sc) μαθήματος [maˈθimatos] and (sc) (sc) μαθήματα [maˈθimata] etc. In some words, the accent moves forward even without the addition of a syllable. For example, (sc) (sc) άνθρωπος ([ˈanθropos], "human") but (sc) (sc) ανθρώπου [anˈθropu], (sc) (sc) ανθρώπων [anˈθropon] and (sc) (sc) ανθρώπους [anˈθropus]. This is due to historical reasons: long vowels and diphthongs occupied two morae which had the same effect as the addition of a syllable[14].
Verbs
[modifier | modifier le code]Greek verb morphology is structured around a basic 2-by-2 contrast of two aspects, namely imperfective and perfective, and two tenses, namely past and non-past (or present). The aspects are expressed by two separate verb stems, while the tenses are marked mainly by different sets of endings. Of the four possible combinations, only three can be used in indicative function: the present (i.e. imperfective non-past), the imperfect (i.e. imperfective past) and the aorist (i.e. perfective past). All four combinations can be used in subjunctive function, where they are typically preceded by the particle να or by one of a set of subordinating conjunctions. There are also two imperatives, one for each aspect.
In addition to these basic forms, Greek also has several periphrastic verb constructions. All the basic forms can be combined with the future particle θα (historically a contraction of θέλει να, 'want to'). Combined with the non-past forms, this creates an imperfective and a perfective future. Combined with the imperfective past it is used as a conditional, and with the perfective past as an inferential. There is also a perfect, which is expressed with an inflected form of the auxiliary verb έχω ('have'). It occurs both as a past perfect (pluperfect) and as a present perfect.
Modern Greek verbs additionally have three non-finite forms. There is a form traditionally called "απαρέμφατο" (i.e. 'infinitive', literally the 'invariant form'), which is historically derived from the perfective (aorist) infinitive, but has today lost all syntactical functions typically associated with that category. It is used only to form the periphrastic perfect and pluperfect, and is always formally identical to the 3rd person singular of the perfective non-past. There is also a passive participle, typically ending in -menos (-meni, -meno), which is inflected as a regular adjective. Its use is either as a canonical adjective, or as a part of a second, alternative perfect periphrasis with transitive verbs. Finally, there is another invariant form, formed from the present tense and typically ending in -ontas, which is variably called either a participle or a gerund by modern authors. It is historically derived from an old present participle, and its sole use today is to form non-finite adjunct adverbial clauses of time or manner, roughly corresponding to an -ing participle in English.
- Regular perfect periphrasis, with aparemphato ("invariant form"), for example:
- Έχω γράψει την επιταγή ([ˈexo ˈɣrapsi tin epitaˈʝi], 'I have written the cheque')
- Alternative perfect periphrasis, with passive participle, for example:
- Έχω την επιταγή γραμμένη ([ˈexo tin epitaˈʝi ɣraˈmeni], 'I have written the cheque')
- Adverbial clause with present participle/gerund form, for example:
- Έτρεξε στο δρόμο τραγουδώντας ([ˈetrekse sto ˈðromo traɣuˈðondas], 'he ran along the street singing')
The tables below exemplify the range of forms with those of one large inflectional class of verbs, the 1st Conjugation.
First conjugation
[modifier | modifier le code]Aspect | Stem | Non-past | Past | Imperative | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Imperfective | γραφ- | Present (indic. + subj.) |
Imperfect | [continuous] | |
('I write') | ('I was writing') | ('write!') | |||
1.Sg. | γράφω | έγραφα | γράφε | ||
2.Sg. | γράφεις | έγραφες | |||
3.Sg. | γράφει | έγραφε | |||
1.Pl. | γράφουμε | γράφαμε | γράφετε | ||
2.Pl. | γράφετε | γράφατε | |||
3.Pl. | γράφουν | έγραφαν | |||
Perfective | γραψ- | Subjunctive | Aorist | [once] | |
('that I write') | ('I wrote') | ('write!') | |||
1.Sg. | γράψω | έγραψα | γράψε | ||
2.Sg. | γράψεις | έγραψες | |||
3.Sg. | γράψει | έγραψε | |||
1.Pl. | γράψουμε | γράψαμε | γράψτε | ||
2.Pl. | γράψετε | γράψατε | |||
3.Pl. | γράψουν | έγραψαν | |||
Perfect | εχ- γράψει |
Present Perf. | Past Perf. | ||
('I have written') | ('I had written') | ||||
1.Sg. | έχω γράψει | είχα γράψει | |||
2.Sg. | έχεις γράψει | είχες γράψει | |||
3.Sg. | έχει γράψει | είχε γράψει | |||
1.Pl. | έχουμε γράψει | είχαμε γράψει | |||
2.Pl. | έχετε γράψει | είχατε γράψει | |||
3.Pl. | έχουν γράψει | είχαν γράψει |
With subordinating particle "να" | With future particle "θα" | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Non-past | Past | Non-past | Past | |||||
Imperfective | να γράφει | '(that) he write', 'to be writing' | να έγραφε | '(that) he was writing, 'to have been writing' | θα γράφει | 'he will be writing' | θα έγραφε | 'he would write' |
Perfective | να γράψει | '(that) he write', 'to write' | να έγραψε | '(that) he wrote', 'to have written' | θα γράψει | 'he will write' | θα έγραψε | 'he probably wrote' |
Second conjugation
[modifier | modifier le code]Below are the corresponding forms of two subtypes of another class, the 2nd conjugation.[15] Only the basic forms are shown here; the periphrastic combinations are formed as shown above. While the person-number endings are quite regular across all verbs within each of these classes, the formation of the two basic stems for each verb displays a lot of irregularity and can follow any of a large number of idiosyncratic patterns.
verbs in -(ά)ω/ώ (αγαπώ 'love') |
verbs in -ώ ( ← -εω) (οδηγώ 'lead') | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Present | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |
1.Sg. | αγαπώ, -άω | αγαπούσα* | οδηγώ | οδηγούσα |
2.Sg. | αγαπάς | αγαπούσες | οδηγείς | οδηγούσες |
3.Sg. | αγαπάει, -ά | αγαπούσε | οδηγεί | οδηγούσε |
1.Pl. | αγαπάμε | αγαπούσαμε | οδηγούμε | οδηγούσαμε |
2.Pl. | αγαπάτε | αγαπούσατε | οδηγείτε | οδηγούσατε |
3.Pl. | αγαπούν(ε), -άν(ε) | αγαπούσανε | οδηγούν | οδηγούσαν(ε) |
Subj. | Aorist | Subj. | Aorist | |
1.Sg. | αγαπήσω | αγάπησα | οδηγήσω | οδήγησα |
2.Sg. | αγαπήσεις | αγάπησες | οδηγήσεις | οδήγησες |
3.Sg. | αγαπήσει | αγάπησε | οδηγήσει | οδήγησε |
1.Pl. | αγαπήσουμε | αγαπήσαμε | οδηγήσουμε | οδηγήσαμε |
2.Pl. | αγαπήσετε | αγαπήσατε | οδηγήσετε | οδηγήσατε |
3.Pl. | αγαπήσουν | αγάπησαν(ε) | οδηγήσουν | οδήγησαν |
*Alternative forms: αγάπαγα, -αγες, -αγε, -άγαμε, -άγατε, -αγαν(ε) |
Augment
[modifier | modifier le code]The use of the past tense prefix ε- (e-), the so-called augment, shows some variation and irregularity between verb classes. In regular (demotic) verbs in standard modern Greek, the prefix is used depending on a stress rule, which specifies that each past tense verb form has its stress on the third syllable from the last (the antepenultimate); the prefix is only inserted whenever the verb would otherwise have fewer than three syllables. In these verbs, the augment always appears as έ-. A number of frequent verbs have irregular forms involving other vowels, mostly η- (i-), for example, θέλω → ήθελα ('want'). In addition, verbs from the learned tradition partly preserve more complex patterns inherited from ancient Greek. In learned compound verbs with adverbial prefixes such as περι- (peri-) or υπο- (ipo-), the augment is inserted between the prefix and the verb stem (for example, περι-γράφω → περι-έ-γραψα ('describe'). Where the prefix itself ends in a vowel, the vowels in this position may be subject to further assimilation rules, such as in υπο-γράφω → υπ-έ-γραψα ('sign'). In addition, verbs whose stem begins in a vowel may also display vocalic changes instead of a syllabic augment, as in ελπίζω → ήλπιζα ('hope'). The table below presents some further examples of these patterns:
Type of verb | Present tense | Meaning | Past tenses | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Perfective | Imperfective | ||||||
Simple | γράφω | [ˈɣrafo] | write | έγραψα | [ˈeɣrapsa] | έγραφα | [ˈeɣrafa] |
Composite | περιγράφω ← περί + γράφω | [peɾiˈɣrafo] | describe | περιέγραψα | [peɾiˈeɣrapsa] | περιέγραφα | [peɾiˈeɣrafa] |
υπογράφω ← υπό + γράφω | [ipoˈɣrafo] | sign | υπέγραψα | [iˈpeɣrapsa] | υπέγραφα | [iˈpeɣrafa] | |
διαγράφω ← δια + γράφω | [ðiaˈɣrafo] | delete | διέγραψα | [ðiˈeɣrapsa] | διέγραφα | [ðiˈeɣrafa] | |
Initial vowel | ελπίζω | [elˈpizo] | hope | ήλπισα | [ˈilpisa] | ήλπιζα | [ˈilpiza] |
Composite and initial vowel | υπάρχω ← υπό + άρχω | [iˈparxo] | exist | υπήρξα | [iˈpirksa] | υπήρχα | [iˈpirxa] |
Irregular augment | είμαι | [ˈime] | be | —— | —— | ήμουν | [ˈimun] |
έχω | [ˈexo] | have | —— | —— | είχα | [ˈixa] | |
θέλω | [ˈθelo] | want | θέλησα (no augment) | [ˈθelisa] | ήθελα | [ˈiθela] | |
ξέρω | [ˈksero] | know | —— | —— | ήξερα | [ˈiksera] | |
πίνω | [ˈpino] | drink | ήπια | [ˈipça] | έπινα | [ˈepina] |
Grammatical voice
[modifier | modifier le code]Greek is one of the few modern Indo-European languages that still retains a morphological contrast between the two inherited Proto-Indo-European grammatical voices: active and mediopassive. The mediopassive has several functions:
- Passive function, denoting an action that is performed on the subject by another agent (for example, σκοτώθηκε 'he was killed');
- Reflexive function, denoting an action performed by the subject on him-/herself (for example, ξυρίστηκε 'he shaved himself');
- Reciprocal function, denoting an action performed by several subjects on each other (for example, αγαπιούνται 'they love each other');
- Modal function, denoting the possibility of an action (for example, τρώγεται 'it is edible');
- Deponential function: verbs that occur only in the mediopassive and lack a corresponding active form. They often have meanings that are rendered as active in other languages: εργάζομαι 'Ι work'; κοιμάμαι 'I sleep'; δέχομαι 'I accept'. There are also many verbs that have both an active and a mediopassive form but where the mediopassive has a special function that may be rendered with a separate verb in other languages: for example, active σηκώνω 'I raise', passive σηκώνομαι 'I get up'; active βαράω 'I strike', passive βαριέμαι 'I am bored'.
γράφω 'write' | αγαπώ 'love' | οδηγώ 'lead' | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Present | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |
1.Sg. | γράφομαι | γραφόμουν | αγαπιέμαι | αγαπιόμουν* | οδηγούμαι | οδηγούμουν |
2.Sg. | γράφεσαι | γραφόσουν | αγαπιέσαι | αγαπιόσουν | οδηγείσαι | οδηγούσουν |
3.Sg. | γράφεται | γραφόταν(ε) | αγαπιέται | αγαπιόταν(ε) | οδηγείται | οδηγούνταν(ε) |
1.Pl. | γραφόμαστε | γραφόμασταν | αγαπιόμαστε | αγαπιόμασταν | οδηγούμαστε | οδηγούμασταν |
2.Pl. | γράφεστε | γραφόσασταν | αγαπιέστε | αγαπιόσασταν | οδηγείστε | οδηγούσασταν |
3.Pl. | γράφονται | γράφονταν | αγαπιούνται, -άν(ε) | αγαπιούνταν | οδηγούνται | οδηγούνταν |
Subj. | Aorist | Subj. | Aorist | Subj. | Aorist | |
1.Sg. | γραφτώ | γράφτηκα | αγαπηθώ | αγαπήθηκα | οδηγηθώ | οδηγήθηκα |
2.Sg. | γραφτείς | γράφτηκες | αγαπηθείς | αγαπήθηκες | οδηγηθείς | οδηγήθηκες |
3.Sg. | γραφτεί | γράφτηκε | αγαπηθεί | αγαπήθηκε | οδηγηθεί | οδηγήθηκε |
1.Pl. | γραφτούμε | γραφτήκαμε | αγαπηθούμε | αγαπηθήκαμε | οδηγηθούμε | οδηγηθήκαμε |
2.Pl. | γραφτείτε | γραφτήκατε | αγαπηθείτε | αγαπηθήκατε | οδηγηθείτε | οδηγηθήκατε |
3.Pl. | γραφτούν | γράφτηκαν | αγαπηθούν | αγαπήθηκαν | οδηγηθούν | οδηγήθηκαν |
There also two other categories of verbs, which historically correspond to the ancient contracted verbs.
εγγυώμαι ('guarantee') | στερούμαι ('lack') | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Present | Imperfect | Imperative | Present | Imperfect | Imperative | |
Impf. | εγγυώμαι εγγυάσαι εγγυάται εγγυόμαστε εγγυάστε εγγυώνται |
εγγυόμουν εγγυόσουν εγγυόταν εγγυόμασταν εγγυόσασταν εγγυόνταν |
— — |
στερούμαι στερείσαι στερείται στερούμαστε στερείστε στερούνται |
στερούμουν στερούσουν στερούνταν and στερείτο στερούμασταν στερούσασταν στερούνταν |
— — |
Subjunctive | Aorist | Imperative | Subjunctive | Aorist | Imperative | |
Pf. | εγγυηθώ εγγυηθείς εγγυηθεί εγγυηθούμε εγγυηθείτε εγγυηθούν |
εγγυήθηκα εγγυήθηκες εγγυήθηκε εγγυηθήκαμε εγγυηθήκατε εγγυήθηκαν |
εγγυήσου εγγυηθείτε |
στερηθώ στερηθείς στερηθεί στερηθούμε στερηθείτε στερηθούν (στερηθούνε) |
στερήθηκα στερήθηκες στερήθηκε στερηθήκαμε στερηθήκατε στερήθηκαν (στερηθήκανε) |
στερήσου στερηθείτε |
έχω εγγυηθεί | έχω στερηθεί |
- There are also more formal suffixes instead of -μασταν, -σασταν: -μαστε, -σαστε. In this case the suffixes of the first person of the plural of present and imperfect are the same.
Be and have
[modifier | modifier le code]The verbs είμαι ('be') and έχω ('have') are irregular and defective, because they both lack the aspectual contrast. The forms of both are given below.
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Nouns
[modifier | modifier le code]The Greek nominal system displays inflection for two numbers (singular and plural), three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and four cases (nominative, genitive, accusative and vocative). As in many other Indo-European languages, the distribution of grammatical gender across nouns is largely arbitrary and need not coincide with natural sex.[16] Case, number and gender are marked on the noun as well as on articles and adjectives modifying it. While there are four cases, there is a great degree of syncretism between case forms within most paradigms. Only one sub-group of the masculine nouns actually has four distinct forms in the four cases.
Articles
[modifier | modifier le code]There are two articles in Modern Greek, the definite and the indefinite. They are both inflected for gender and case, and the definite article also for number. The article agrees with the noun it modifies.
Definite article
[modifier | modifier le code]The definite article is used frequently in Greek, such as before proper names and nouns used in an abstract sense. For example,
- Ο Αλέξανδρος ήρθε χθες (O Alexandros irthe chthes, "Alexander came yesterday")
- Η ειλικρίνεια είναι η καλύτερη πρακτική. (I eilikrineia einai i kalyteri praktiki, "Honesty is the best policy")
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Nominative | ο | η | το |
Accusative | το(ν) | τη(ν) | το | |
Genitive | του | της | του | |
Plural | Nominative | οι | οι | τα |
Accusative | τους | τις | τα | |
Genitive | των | των | των |
Indefinite article
[modifier | modifier le code]The indefinite article is identical with the numeral one and has only singular. The use of the indefinite article is not dictated by rules and the speaker can use it according to the circumstances of his speech.[17] Indefiniteness in plural nouns is expressed by the bare noun without an article. For example,
- Αγόρασα έναν υπολογιστή (Agorasa enan ypologisti, "I bought a computer")
However, the indefinite article is not used in Greek as often as in English because it specifically expresses the concept of "one". For example,
- Είναι δικηγόρος (Einai dikigoros, "He is a lawyer")
- Τι καλό παιδί! (Ti kalo paidi, "What a good boy!")
Singular | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
Nominative | ένας | [ˈenas] | μία or μια | [ˈmia] or [mɲa] | ένα | [ˈena] |
Accusative | έναν | [ˈenan] | μία(ν) or μια(ν)[note 1] | [ˈmia(n)] or [mɲa(n)] | ένα | [ˈena] |
Genitive | ενός | [eˈnos] | μίας or μιας | [ˈmias] or [mɲas] | ενός | [eˈnos] |
Declensions
[modifier | modifier le code]Greek nouns are inflected by case and number. In addition each noun belongs to one of three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. Within each of the three genders, there are several sub-groups (declension classes) with different sets of inflectional endings.
Masculine nouns
[modifier | modifier le code]The main groups of masculine nouns have the nominative singular end in -ος [-os], -ης [-is], -ας [-as], -εας [-ˈeas]. Nouns in -os are identical to the Ancient Greek second declension, except for the final -n of the accusative singular. However, in other parts of speech that follow the same declension and where clarity is necessary, such as in pronouns, the -n is added. When the word has more than two syllables and the antepenult is accented, the accent fluctuates between the antepenult and the penult according to whether the last syllable has one of the ancient long diphthongs, -ου, -ων or -ους. Nouns in -is correspond to the ancient first declension and have the accent on the ultimate syllable in genitive plural, and so do some nouns ending in -ίας [-ˈias].[18] Nouns in -as stem from the ancient third declension. They formed their nominative singular from the accusative singular and retain the original accent in genitive plural.[18] Nouns in -eas stem from the ancient third declension and form their plural respectively.
Moreover, there are other categories and forms too that have to do either with Demotic or Katharevousa. For example, through Demotic, many nouns, especially oxytones (those that are accented on the last syllable) in -άς (-as) or -ής (-is) form their plural by adding the stem extension -άδ- (-ad-) and -ήδ- (-id-) respectively. Although this declension group is an element of Demotic, it has its roots in Ionic Greek that influenced later Koine.[19] On the other hand, from Katharevousa, nouns such as μυς (mys, "muscle") follow the ancient declension in all cases except for the dative.
-ος/-οι άνθρωπος ([ˈanθropos] 'human') |
-ης/-ες πολίτης ([poˈlitis] 'citizen') |
-ας/-ες πατέρας ([paˈteras] 'father') |
-εας/-εις προβολέας ([provoˈleas] 'floodlight') |
-ας/-αδες ψαράς ([psaˈras] 'fisherman') | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative |
άνθρωπος ανθρώπου άνθρωπο άνθρωπε |
[-os] [-u] [-o] [-e] |
πολίτης πολίτη πολίτη πολίτη |
[-is] [-i] [-i] [-i] |
πατέρας πατέρα πατέρα πατέρα |
[-as] [-a] [-a] [-a] |
προβολέας προβολέα προβολέα προβολέα |
[-eas] [-ea] [-ea] [-ea] |
ψαράς ψαρά ψαρά ψαρά |
[-as] [-a] [-a] [-a] |
Plural | Nominative Genitive Accusative |
άνθρωποι ανθρώπων ανθρώπους |
[-i] [-on] [-us] |
πολίτες πολιτών πολίτες |
[-es] [-ˈon] [-es] |
πατέρες πατέρων πατέρες |
[-es] [-on] [-es] |
προβολείς προβολέων προβολείς |
[-is] [-eon] [-is] |
ψαράδες ψαράδων ψαράδες |
[-aðes] [-aðon] [-aðes] |
Feminine nouns
[modifier | modifier le code]Most feminine nouns end in -η [-i], -α [-a] and -ος [-os]. Those that end in -i and many that end in -a stem from the ancient first declension and have the accent on the ultimate syllable in genitive plural. The rest of those that end in -a originate from the ancient third declension and have formed their nominative singular from the ancient accusative singular; those nouns keep the accent unchanged in genitive plural. The nouns that end in -os are identical to the respective masculine nouns. Finally, many feminine nouns that end in -η (-i) correspond to Ancient Greek nouns in -ις (-is), which are still used as learned forms in formal contexts. Their singular forms have been adapted to the rest of the feminine nouns, while their plural forms have retained the ancient pattern in -εις (-eis). The forms of the genitive singular -εως (-eos) are also found as a stylistic variant and they are fully acceptable, and in fact are more commonly used than the old-style nominative singular form.[20]:60
-η/-ες μάχη ([ˈmaçi], 'battle') |
-α/-ες θάλασσα ([ˈθalasa], 'sea') |
-ος/-οι μέθοδος ([ˈmeθoðos], 'method') |
-η/-εις δύναμη ([ˈðinami], 'force') | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative |
μάχη μάχης μάχη μάχη |
[-i] [-is] [-i] [-i] |
θάλασσα θάλασσας θάλασσα θάλασσα |
[-a] [-as] [-a] [-a] |
μέθοδος μεθόδου μέθοδο μέθοδε |
[-os] [-u] [-o] [-e] |
δύναμη δύναμης and δυνάμεως δύναμη δύναμη |
[-i] [-is] and [-eos] [-i] [-i] |
Plural | Nominative Genitive Accusative |
μάχες μαχών μάχες |
[-es] [-ˈon] [-es] |
θάλασσες θαλασσών θάλασσες |
[-es] [-ˈon] [-es] |
μέθοδοι μεθόδων μεθόδους |
[-i] [-on] [-us] |
δυνάμεις δυνάμεων δυνάμεις |
[-is] [-eon] [-is] |
Neuter nouns
[modifier | modifier le code]Most neuter nouns end either in -ο [-o] (plural: -α [-a]) or -ι [-i] (plural: [-ja] or -ia). Indeed, most of them that end in -i initially ended in -io, an ending for diminutives that many nouns acquired already since Koine Greek. As a result, the endings of the plural and of the genitive singular are reminiscent of those older forms. For example, the diminutive of the ancient Greek word παῖς (pais, "child") is παιδίον (paidion) and hence the modern noun παιδί (paidi).[21] Other neuter nouns end in -α (-a) and -ος (-os) and their declension is similar to the ancient one. Moreover, some nouns in -ιμο (-imo), which are usually derivatives of verbs, are declined similarly to those that end in -a. Also note that most borrowings are indeclinable neuter, and can have just about any ending, such as γουίντ-σέρφινγκ "windsurfing". Finally, all neuter nouns have identical forms across the nominative, accusative and vocative.
-ο/-α βιβλίο ([viˈvlio], 'book') |
-ί/-ιά παιδί ([peˈði], 'child') |
-α/-ατα πρόβλημα ([ˈprovlima], 'problem') |
-ος/-η μέγεθος ([ˈmeʝeθos], 'size') |
-ιμο/-ίματα δέσιμο ([ˈðesimo], 'tying') | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Nominative Genitive Accusative |
βιβλίο βιβλίου βιβλίο |
[-o] [-u] [-o] |
παιδί παιδιού παιδί |
[-i] [-ˈju] [-i] |
πρόβλημα προβλήματος πρόβλημα |
[-a] [-atos] [-a] |
μέγεθος μεγέθους μέγεθος |
[-os] [-us] [-os] |
δέσιμο δεσίματος δέσιμο |
[-o] [-atos] [-o] |
Plural | Nominative Genitive Accusative |
βιβλία βιβλίων βιβλία |
[-a] [-on] [-a] |
παιδιά παιδιών παιδιά |
[-ˈja] [-ˈjon] [-ˈja] |
προβλήματα προβλημάτων προβλήματα |
[-ata] [-ˈaton] [-ata] |
μεγέθη μεγεθών μεγέθη |
[-i] [-ˈon] [-i] |
δεσίματα δεσιμάτων δεσίματα |
[-ata] [-ˈaton] [-ata] |
For other neuter nouns, the ancient declension is used. For example, το φως (fos, "light") becomes του φωτός, τα φώτα and των φώτων and το οξύ (oxy, "acid") becomes του οξέος, τα οξέα and των οξέων.
Adjectives
[modifier | modifier le code]Adjectives agree with nouns in gender, case and number. Therefore, each adjective has a threefold declension paradigm for the three genders. Adjectives show agreement both when they are used as attributes, e.g. η όμορφη γυναίκα (i omorfi gynaika, "the beautiful woman") and when they are used as predicates e.g. η γυναίκα είναι όμορφη (i gynaika einai omorfi, "the woman is beautiful").
Most adjectives take forms in -ος (-os) in the masculine, -ο (-o) in the neuter and either -η (-i), -α (-a) or -ια (-ia) in the feminine. All those adjectives are declined similarly with the nouns that have the same endings. However they keep the accent stable where nouns change it. Adjectives with a consonant before the ending usually form the feminine with -η, those with a vowel before the ending in -α and some adjectives that end in -κός ([-ˈkos], -kos) or -χός ([-ˈxos], -chos) usually form it in -ια although the ending -η is applicable for those too.
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Nominative | όμορφος ([ˈomorfos], "beautiful") |
όμορφος | όμορφη | όμορφο |
νέος ([ˈneos], "new, young") |
νέος | νέα | νέο | ||
γλυκός ([ɣliˈkos], "sweet") |
γλυκός | γλυκιά | γλυκό |
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
for όμορφος | for νέος | for γλυκός | |||||||||
Singular | Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative |
όμορφος όμορφου όμορφο όμορφε |
[-os] [-u] [-o] [-e] |
όμορφη όμορφης όμορφη όμορφη |
[-i] [-is] [-i] [-i] |
νέα νέας νέα νέα |
[-a] [-as] [-a] [-a] |
γλυκιά γλυκιάς γλυκιά γλυκιά |
[-ja] [-jas] [-ja] [-ja] |
όμορφο όμορφου όμορφο όμορφο |
[-o] [-u] [-o] [-o] |
Plural | Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative |
όμορφοι όμορφων όμορφους όμορφοι |
[-i] [-on] [-us] [-i] |
όμορφες όμορφων όμορφες όμορφες |
[-es] [-on] [-es] [-es] |
νέες νέων νέες νέες |
[-es] [-on] [-es] [-es] |
γλυκές γλυκών γλυκές γλυκές |
[-es] [-on] [-es] [-es] |
όμορφα ὀμορφων όμορφα όμορφα |
[-a] [-on] [-a] [-a] |
Other classes of adjectives include those that take forms in -ης (-is) in both masculine and feminine and in -ες (-es) in neuter. They are declined similarly with the ancient declension. Those that are not accented on the ultima usually raise the accent in the neuter. Another group includes adjectives that end in -υς ([-is], -ys). Although some are declined somewhat archaically such as οξύς (oxys, "acute"), most of them are declined according to the rules of Demotic Greek and in many cases and persons they acquire other endings, such as in the case of πλατύς (platys, "wide").
-ης, -ες/-εις, -η συνεχής ([sineˈçis], 'continual') |
-υς, -ια, -υ/-ιοι, -ιες, -ια πλατύς ([plaˈtis], 'wide') |
-υς, -εια, -υ/-εις, -ειες, -εα οξύς ([oˈksis], 'acute') | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masc. & Fem. | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||||||||
Singular | Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative |
συνεχής συνεχούς συνεχή συνεχής |
[-is] [-us] [-i] [-is] |
συνεχές συνεχούς συνεχές συνεχές |
[-es] [-us] [-es] [-es] |
πλατύς πλατιού πλατύ πλατύ |
[-is] [-ju] [-i] [-i] |
πλατιά πλατιάς πλατιά πλατιά |
[-ja] [-jas] [-ja] [-ja] |
πλατύ πλατιού πλατύ πλατύ |
[-i] [-ju] [-i] [-i] |
οξύς οξέος οξύ οξύ |
[-is] [-eos] [-i] [-i] |
οξεία οξείας οξεία οξεία |
[-ia] [-ias] [-ia] [-ia] |
οξύ οξέος οξύ οξύ |
[-i] [-eos] [-i] [-i] |
Plural | Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative |
συνεχείς συνεχών συνεχείς συνεχείς |
[-is] [-on] [-is] [-is] |
συνεχή συνεχών συνεχή συνεχή |
[-i] [-on] [-i] [-i] |
πλατιοί πλατιών πλατιούς πλατιοί |
[-ji] [-jon] [-jus] [-ji] |
πλατιές πλατιών πλατιές πλατιές |
[-jes] [-jon] [-jes] [-jes] |
πλατιά πλατιών πλατιά πλατιἀ |
[-ja] [-ja] [-ja] [-ja] |
οξείς οξέων οξείς οξείς |
[-is] [-eon] [-is] [-is] |
οξείες οξειών οξείες οξείες |
[-ies] [-ion] [-ies] [-ies] |
οξέα οξέων οξέα οξέα |
[-ea] [-eon] [-ea] [-ea] |
The adjective πολύς (polys, "many, much") is irregular:
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative |
πολύς πολύ or πολλού πολύ πολύ |
[-is] [-i] or [-u] [-i] [-i] |
πολλή πολλής πολλή πολλή |
[-i] [-is] [-i] [-i] |
πολύ πολύ or πολλού πολύ πολύ |
[-i] [-i] or [-u] [-i] [-i] |
Plural | Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative |
πολλοί πολλών πολλούς πολλοί |
[-i] [-on] [-us] [-i] |
πολλές πολλών πολλές πολλές |
[-es] [-on] [-es] [-es] |
πολλά πολλών πολλά πολλά |
[-a] [-on] [-a] [-a] |
Comparative and superlative
[modifier | modifier le code]Adjectives in Modern Greek can form a comparative for expressing comparisons. Similar to English, it can be formed in two ways, as a periphrastic form (as in English (sc) beautiful, (sc) more beautiful) and as a synthetic form using suffixes, as in English (sc) tall (sc) tall-er. The periphrastic comparative is formed by the particle πιο ([pço], pio, originally "more") preceding the adjective. The synthetic forms of the regular adjectives in -ος, -η and -o is created with the suffix -οτερος (-oteros), -οτερη (-oteri) and -οτερο (-otero). For those adjectives that end in -ης and -ες or -υς, -εια and -υ the corresponding suffixes are -εστερος (-esteros) etc. and -υτερος (-yteros) etc. respectively.
A superlative is expressed by combining the comparative, in either its periphrastic or synthetic form, with a preceding definite article. Thus, Modern Greek does not distinguish between the largest house and the larger house; both are το μεγαλύτερο σπίτι.
Besides the superlative proper, sometimes called "relative superlative", there is also an "absolute superlative" or elative, expressing the meaning "very...", for example ωραιότατος means very beautiful. Elatives are formed with the suffixes -οτατος, -οτατη and -οτατο for the regular adjectives, -εστατος etc. for those in -ης and -υτατος for those in -υς.
Simple form | Comparative form | Superlative form | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Relative | Absolute (elative) | ||||||
Periphrastic | Synthetic | Periphrastic | Synthetic | ||||
Adjectives | ωραίος | nice | πιο ωραίος | ωραιότερος | ο πιο ωραίος | ο ωραιότερος | ωραιότατος |
βαθύς | deep | πιο βαθύς | βαθύτερος | ο πιο βαθύς | ο βαθύτερος | βαθύτατος | |
επιεικής | lenient | πιο επιεικής | επιεικέστερος | ο πιο επιεικής | ο επιεικέστερος | επιεικέστατος | |
Participles | μεθυσμένος | drunk | πιο μεθυσμένος | — | ο πιο μεθυσμένος | — | — |
Adverbs | ωραία | nicely | πιο ωραία | ωραιότερα | — | — | ωραιότατα |
επιεικώς | leniently | πιο επιεικώς | επιεικέστερα | — | — | επιεικέστατα |
Numerals
[modifier | modifier le code]The numerals one, three and four are declined irregularly. Other numerals such as διακόσιοι (diakosioi, "two hundred"), τριακόσιοι (triakosioi, "three hundred") etc. and χίλιοι (chilioi, "thousand") are declined regularly like adjectives. Other numerals including two are not declined.
Singular | Plural | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ένας (enas, "one") | τρεις (treis, "three") | τέσσερις (tesseris, "four") | ||||||||||||
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masc. & Fem. | Neuter | Masc. & Fem. | Neuter | ||||||||
Nominative | ένας | [ˈenas] | μία | [ˈmia] | ένα | [ˈena] | τρεις | [tris] | τρία | [ˈtria] | τέσσερις | [ˈteseris] | τέσσερα | [ˈtesera] |
Genitive | ενός | [eˈnos] | μιας | [mɲas] | ενός | [eˈnos] | τριών | [triˈon] | τριών | [triˈon] | τεσσάρων | [teˈsaron] | τεσσάρων | [teˈsaron] |
Accusative | έναν[note 1] | [ˈenan] | μία | [ˈmia] | ένα | [ˈena] | τρεις | [tris] | τρία | [ˈtria] | τέσσερις | [ˈteseris] | τέσσερα | [ˈtesera] |
Pronouns
[modifier | modifier le code]Greek pronouns include personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, possessive pronouns, intensive pronouns,[22] relative pronouns, and indefinite pronouns.
Personal pronouns
[modifier | modifier le code]There are strong personal pronouns (stressed, free) and weak personal pronouns (unstressed, clitic). Nominative pronouns only have the strong form (except in some minor environments) and are used as subjects only when special emphasis is intended, since unstressed subjects recoverable from context are not overtly expressed anyway. Genitive (possessive) pronouns are used in their weak forms as pre-verbal clitics to express indirect objects (for example, του μίλησα, [tu ˈmilisa], 'I talked to him'), and as a post-nominal clitic to express possession (for example, οι φίλοι του, [i ˈfili tu], 'his friends'). The strong genitive forms are relatively rare and used only for special emphasis (for example, αυτού οι φίλοι, [afˈtu i ˈfili], 'his friends'); often they are doubled by the weak forms (for example, αυτού του μίλησα, [afˈtu tu ˈmilisa], ' him I talked to'). An alternative way of giving emphasis to a possessive pronoun is propping it up with the stressed adjective δικός ([ðiˈkos], 'own'), for example, οι δικοί του φίλοι ([i ðiˈci tu ˈfili], 'his friends').
Accusative pronouns exist both in a weak and a strong form. The weak form is used as a pre-verbal clitic (for example, τον είδα, [ton ˈiða], 'I saw him'); the strong form is used elsewhere in the clause (for example, είδα αυτόν, [ˈiða afˈton], 'I saw him'). Third-person pronouns have separate forms for the three genders; those of the first and second person do not. The weak third-person forms are similar to the corresponding forms of the definite article. The strong third-person forms function simultaneously as generic demonstratives ('this, that').
The strong plural forms of the third person in the genitive and accusative (αυτών, αυτούς etc.) have optional alternative forms extended by an additional syllable [-on-] or [-un-] (αυτωνών, αυτουνούς etc.)
1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masc. | Fem. | Neut. | ||||||||||
Strong | Singular | Nominative | εγώ | [eˈɣo] | εσύ | [eˈsi] | αυτός | [afˈtos] | αυτή | [afˈti] | αυτό | [afˈto] |
Genitive | εμένα | [eˈmena] | εσένα | [eˈsena] | αυτoύ | [afˈtu] | αυτής | [afˈtis] | αυτού | [afˈtu] | ||
Accusative | εμένα | [eˈmena] | εσένα | [eˈsena] | αυτόν | [afˈton] | αυτήν | [afˈtin] | αυτό | [afˈto] | ||
Plural | Nominative | εμείς | [eˈmis] | εσείς | [eˈsis] | αυτοί | [afˈti] | αυτές | [afˈtes] | αυτά | [afˈta] | |
Genitive | εμάς | [eˈmas] | εσάς | [eˈsas] | αυτών | [afˈton] | αυτών | [afˈton] | αυτών | [afˈton] | ||
Accusative | εμάς | [eˈmas] | εσάς | [eˈsas] | αυτούς | [afˈtus] | αυτές | [afˈtes] | αυτά | [afˈta] | ||
Weak | Singular | Nominative | τος | [tos] | τη | [ti] | το | [to] | ||||
Genitive | μου | [mu] | σου | [su] | του | [tu] | της | [tis] | του | [tu] | ||
Accusative | με | [me] | σε | [se] | τον | [ton] | την[note 1] | [tin] | το | [to] | ||
Plural | Nominative | τοι | [ti] | τες | [tes] | τα | [ta] | |||||
Genitive | μας | [mas] | σας | [sas] | τους | [tus] | τους | [tus] | τους | [tus] | ||
Accusative | μας | [mas] | σας | [sas] | τους | [tus] | τις/τες | [tis]/[tes] | τα | [ta] |
Besides αυτός [afˈtos] as a generic demonstrative, there are also the more specific spatial demonstrative pronouns τούτος, -η, -ο ([ˈtutos], 'this here') and εκείνος, -η, -ο ([eˈcinos], 'that there').
Prepositions
[modifier | modifier le code]In Demotic Greek, prepositions normally require the accusative case: από (from), για (for), με (with), μετά (after), χωρίς (without), ως (as) and σε (to, in or at). The preposition σε, when followed by a definite article, fuses with it into forms like στο (σε + το) and στη (σε + τη). While there is only a relatively small number of simple prepositions native to Demotic, the two most basic prepositions σε and από can enter into a large number of combinations with preceding adverbs to form new compound prepositions, for example, πάνω σε (on), κάτω από (underneath), πλάι σε (beside) etc.
A few prepositions that take cases other than the accusative have been borrowed into Standard Modern Greek from the learned tradition of Katharevousa: κατά (against), υπέρ (in favor of, for), αντί (instead of). Other prepositions live on in a fossilised form in certain fixed expressions (for example, εν τω μεταξύ 'in the meantime', dative).
The preposition από (apó, 'from') is also used to express the agent in passive sentences, like English by.
Conjunctions
[modifier | modifier le code]Coordinating and subordinating conjunctions in Greek include:
Kinds | Conjunctions | Meaning |
---|---|---|
Copulative | και (κι), ούτε, μήτε, ουδέ, μηδέ | and, neither |
Disjunctive | ή, είτε | or, either |
Adversative | μα, αλλά, παρά, όμως, ωστόσο, ενώ, αν και, μολονότι, μόνο | but, although, however, whereas |
Inferential | λοιπόν, ώστε, άρα, επομένως, που | so, so as, thus, that |
Explanatory | δηλαδή | so, in other words |
Complementizers[23] | ότι, πως, που | that |
Temporal | όταν, σαν, ενώ, καθώς, αφού, αφότου, πριν (πριν να), μόλις, προτού, ώσπου, ωσότου, όσο που, όποτε | when, while, after, before, just, until |
Causal | γιατί, διότι, επειδή, αφού | because |
Conditional | αν, εάν, άμα, σαν | if |
Purpose | να, για να | so as, (in order) to |
Result | ώστε (να), που | so as, (in order) to |
Concessive | μολονότι | despite |
Dubitative | μη(ν), μήπως | maybe, perhaps |
Comparative | παρά | to, than |
The word να ([na]) serves as a generic subordinator corresponding roughly to English to (+ infinitive) or that in sentences like προτιμώ να πάω ([protiˈmo na ˈpao], 'I prefer to go', literally 'I prefer that I go') or προτιμώ να πάει ο Γιάννης ([protiˈmo na ˈpai o ˈʝannis], 'I prefer that John go'). It marks the following verb as being in the subjunctive mood. Somewhat similar to the English to-infinitive its use is often associated with meanings of non-factuality, i.e. events that have not (yet) come true, that are expected, wished for etc. In this, it contrasts with ότι [ˈoti] and πως [pos], which correspond to English that when used with a meaning of factuality. The difference can be seen in the contrast between μας είπε να πάμε βόλτα ([mas ˈipe na ˈpame ˈvolta], 'he told us to go for a walk') vs. μας είπε πως πήγε βόλτα ([mas ˈipe pos ˈpiʝe ˈvolta], 'he told us that he went for a walk'). When used on its own with a following verb, να may express a wish or order, as in να πάει! ([na ˈpai], 'let him go' or 'may he go'). Unlike the other subordinating conjunctions, να is always immediately followed by the verb it governs, separated from it only by any clitics that might be attached to the verb, but not by a subject or other clause-initial material.
Negation
[modifier | modifier le code]For sentence negation, Greek has two distinct negation particles, δε(ν) ([ˈðe(n)], de(n)) and μη(ν)[note 1] ([ˈmi(n)], mi(n)). Δεν is used in clauses with indicative mood, while μην is used primarily in subjunctive contexts, either after subjunctive-inducing να or as a negative replacement for να. Both particles are syntactically part of the proclitic group in front of the verb, and can be separated from the verb only by intervening clitic pronouns.[24] The distinction between δεν and μην is a particularly archaic feature in Greek, continuing an old prohibitive negation marker inherited from Indo-European.[25] As such, μην is often associated with the expression of a wish for an event not to come true:
- Δεν του ζήτησα να έρθει. (Den tou zitisa na erthei, "I didn't ask him to come.")
- Του ζήτησα να μην έρθει. (Tou zitisa na min erthei, "I asked him not to come.")
When used alone with a subjunctive verb in the second person, prohibitive μην serves as the functional equivalent to a negative imperative, which itself cannot be negated. Thus, the negation of the positive imperative τρέξε ([ˈtrekse], 'run!') is μην τρέξεις ([min ˈtreksis], 'don't run!').
The particle όχι serves as the stand-alone utterance of negation ('no'), and also for negation of elliptical, verbless sentences and for contrastive negation of individual constituents:
- Κάλεσα την Μαρία, όχι τον Γιώργο. (Kalesa tin Maria, ochi ton Giorgo, "I invited Mary, not George.")
For constituent negation, Greek employs negative concord. The negated constituent is marked with a negative-polarity item (e.g. κανένας 'any, anybody/nobody', τίποτα 'anything/nothing', πουθενά 'anywhere/nowhere'), and the verb is additionally marked with the sentence negator δεν (or μην).[26] In verbless, elliptical contexts the negative-polarity items can also serve to express negation alone.
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative Genitive Accusative |
κανένας or κανείς κανενός κανέναν[note 1] |
[-enas] or [-is] [-enos] [-enan] |
καμία καμίας καμία |
[-mia] [-mias] [-mia] |
κανένα κανενός κανένα |
[-ena] [-enos] [-ena] |
The negative pronoun κανείς ([kaˈnis], kaneis), i.e. nobody or anybody is declined in all three genders and three cases and can be used as the English determiner no.
- Δεν θέλω κανέναν εδώ. (Den thelo kanenan edo, "I want nobody here.")
- —Είναι κανείς εδώ; —Όχι, κανείς. (—Einai kaneis edo? —Ochi, kaneis, "'Is anyone here?' 'No, nobody.'")
- Δεν έκανα κανένα λάθος. (Den ekana kanena lathos, "I have made no mistake.")
On the other hand, the negative pronoun ουδείς ([uˈðis], oudeis), from the learned tradition of Ancient Greek, is used without negative concord:
- Ουδείς πείστηκε. (Oudeis peistike, "No one was convinced.")
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative Genitive Accusative |
ουδείς ουδενός ουδένα |
[-is] [-enos] [-ena] |
ουδεμία ουδεμίας ουδεμία(ν) |
[-mia] [-mias] [-mia(n)] |
ουδέν ουδενός ουδέν |
[-en] [-enos] [-en] |
Relative clauses
[modifier | modifier le code]Greek has two different ways of forming relative clauses. The simpler and by far the more frequent uses the invariable relativizer που ([pu], 'that', literally 'where'), as in: η γυναίκα που είδα χτες ([i ʝiˈneka pu ˈiða xtes], 'the woman that I saw yesterday'). When the relativized element is a subject, object or adverbial within the relative clause, then – as in English – it has no other overt expression within the relative clause apart from the relativizer. Some other types of relativized elements, however, such as possessors, are represented within the clause by a resumptive pronoun, as in: η γυναίκα που βρήκα την τσάντα της (/i ʝiˈneka pu ˈvrika tin ˈt͡sanda tis/, 'the woman whose handbag I found', literally 'the woman that I found her handbag').
The second and more formal form of relative clauses employs complex inflected relative pronouns. They are composite elements consisting of the definite article and a following pronominal element that is inflected like an adjective: ο οποίος, η οποία, το οποίο ([o oˈpios, i oˈpia, to oˈpio] etc., literally 'the which'). Both elements are inflected for case, number and gender according to the grammatical properties of the relativized item within the relative clause, as in: η γυναίκα την οποία είδα χτες ([i ʝiˈneka tin oˈpia ˈiða xtes], 'the woman whom I saw yesterday'); η γυναίκα της οποίας βρήκα την τσάντα ([i ʝiˈneka tis oˈpias ˈvrika tin ˈt͡sanda], 'the woman whose handbag I found').
Notes
[modifier | modifier le code]- In these cases, the final -ν (-n) is omitted before words that begin with a consonant except when this consonant is a voiceless stop κ [k], π [p] and τ [t], a double consonant ξ [ks] or ψ [ps] and one of the consonant clusters μπ [b], ντ [d], γκ [g], τσ [ts] and τζ [dz].
References
[modifier | modifier le code]- [3]
- en:Great Recession
- Commons:Image:Us unemployment rates 1950 2005.png
- Bureau of Labor Statistics
- Geoffrey Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers, Longman, New York, 1997, (ISBN 0582307090), p. 364
- Modèle:El icon Γεώργιος Μπαμπινιώτης (5 December 1999). "Τι γλώσσα μιλάμε". Τα Νέα. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
- Holton, Mackridge et Philippaki-Warburton 1997, §C.5.2
- Holton, Mackridge et Philippaki-Warburton 1997, §C.2.4.3.2
- Holton, Mackridge et Philippaki-Warburton 1997, §C.2.11
- Joseph 1994
- Robert Browning, Medieval and Modern Greek, Cambridge University Press, Second Edition, 1983, (ISBN 0521299780)
- Lindstedt 1998
- Καρανικόλας, Α. κά., Νεοελληνική Γραμματική: Αναπροσαρμογή της μικρής νεοελληνικής γραμματικής του Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη, Οργανισμός Εκδόσεως Διδακτικών Βιβλίων, Αθήνα, 2004, pp. 22–26
- Modèle:El icon Portal for the Greek Language: νόμος της τρισυλλαβίας. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
- Holton, Mackridge et Philippaki-Warburton 1997, §B.7.3–4
- Holton, Mackridge et Philippaki-Warburton 1997, §C.2.2
- Χρ. Κλαίρης, Γ. Μπαμπινιώτης, Γραμματική της Νέας Ελληνικής: Δομολειτουργική–Επικοινωνιακή, Ελληνικά Γράμματα, Αθήνα, 2004, (ISBN 9604068121)
- B.F.C. Atkinson, The Greek Language, Cambridge University Press, Second Edition, October 1933, p. 316
- Modèle:El icon §§ α & β, Χαραλαμπάκης, Χ. (1997; 1999), Θέματα ιστορίας της ελληνικής γλώσσας: Δημιουργία της ελληνιστικής κοινής, edited by Νίκος Παντελίδης, 2007, Πύλη για την Ελληνική γλώσσα Retrieved May 2012
- (en) Greek: a Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language, Routledge,
- Modèle:El icon Παπαναστασίου, Γ. (2001), Θέματα ιστορίας της ελληνικής γλώσσας: Δημιουργία της ελληνιστικής κοινής, edited by Νίκος Παντελίδης, 2007, Πύλη για την Ελληνική γλώσσα Retrieved May 2012
- Holton, Mackridge & Philippaki-Warburton 2004, p. 101
- Holton, Mackridge & Philippaki-Warburton 2004, p. 195
- Joseph and Philippaki-Warburton, 1987, p. 62
- (en) Jacob Wackernagel, Lectures on syntax, with special reference to Greek, Latin, and Germanic. Edited by David Langslow, Oxford, University Press, , §11.258
- Joseph and Philippaki-Warburton 1987, p. 65
Bibliography
[modifier | modifier le code]- Hardy, D. A. and Doyle, T. A. Greek language and people, BBC Books, 1996. (ISBN 0-563-16575-8).
- (en) David Holton, Peter Mackridge et Irini Philippaki-Warburton, Greek: A comprehensive grammar of the modern language, London, Routledge,
- (en) David Holton, Peter Mackridge et Irini Philippaki-Warburton, Grammatiki tis ellinikis glossas, Athens, Pataki, [Greek translation of Holton, Mackridge and Philippaki-Warburton 1997]
- (en) David Holton, Peter Mackridge et Irini Philippaki-Warburton, Greek: An essential grammar of the modern language, London, Routledge, (ISBN 0-415-23210-4) [abridged version of Holton, Mackridge and Philippaki-Warburton 1997]
- (en) Brian D. Joseph, Themes in Greek Linguistics (Papers from the First International Conference on Greek Linguistics, Reading, September 1993), Amsterdam, Benjamins, , 21–32 p. (lire en ligne), « On weak subjects and pro-drop in Greek »
- Joseph, Brian D. and I. Philippaki-Warburton, Modern Greek, Croom Helm, 1987, (ISBN 0709914520).
- Jouko Lindstedt, « On the Balkan Linguistic Type », Studia Slavica Finlandensia, vol. 15, , p. 91–101
- Lindstedt, J. 1999. "On the Nature of Linguistic Balkanisms". Paper read at the Eighth International Congress of the International Association of Southeast European Studies (AIESEE), Bucharest 24–28 August 1999.
- Μαρινέτα, Δ. and Παπαχειμώνα, Δ., Ελληνικά Τώρα, Nostos, 1992. (ISBN 960-85137-0-7).
- Pappageotes, G. C. and Emmanuel, P. D., Modern Greek in a Nutshell, Institute for Language Study, Montclair, N.J. 07042, Funk and Wagnalls, New York, 1958; "Vest Pocket Modern Greek", Owlets, 1990, (ISBN 0-8050-1510-8), (ISBN 0-8489-5106-9).
- Pring, J. T. The Pocket Oxford Greek Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 2000. (ISBN 0-19-860327-4).