Intergroup Theories[modifier | modifier le code]

One needs to look no further than the headlines of any major newspaper to understand the present difficulties, conflicts, and threats of our human society. Although humans are said to have “evolved” from more primitive life-forms, we persist in the brutality of war, regularly experience or exhibit acts of intolerance, and sometimes whether unknowingly or as active participants, participate in many types of bias including gender and race discrimination. Yet despite this rather gloomy outlook, we continuously struggle to achieve purpose in life not only within ourselves but through our interactions with others. How can we achieve the latter when the former is so intrinsically woven into our behavioral patterns? How are societal transgressions as prevalent as racism or sexism left unfettered in schools, neighborhoods, and in our workplace? Behind these questions lies the fabric of social structures that manipulate motivational behavior in sometimes negative ways.

These social structures, when understood in the context of individual behavior in groups, may explain how we are influenced by others to exhibit bias. Intergroup Theories, which consist of Integrated Threat Theory, Social Identity Theory and Social Dominance Theory, serve to delineate these structures. By better understanding the research associated with these theories, their respective strengths and weaknesses, and their applications in the workplace, we can realize new methods of reducing both intra- and inter-organizational conflict and discrimination. If an individual takes the time to grasp these theories in concepts and gain a subsequent understanding of the formation of these workplace groups it will help them do a better job and become a bigger asset to their employer.

Social Identity Theory Overview[modifier | modifier le code]

Social Identity Theory focuses on the relationship between self-concept and group behavior (Hogg & Terry, 2001). This theory explains that different aspects of individuals' personalities motivate them at different times, and that "the identity component that motivates behavior will be determined by the specific situation that the person is in" (PSU World Campus, L.8, 2012, p.5). They can rely on personal identity or social identity (Redmond, 2010). "Personal identity consists of moral sensibility and conscience, and also a desire for achievement, mastery, and competence" (Mayor, Greenbaum, Kuenzi, and Shteynberg, 2009). The theory has been described as a "theory that predicts intergroup behaviors based on the individuals perceived status in an intergroup environment" (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). "Personal identity is the combination of objective biosocial markers such as age, race, sex, and so on, and the personal life history of the individual" (Brew & Gardner, 1996; Weigert et al. ;1986). The social identity theory was proposed by Henri Tajfel as a result of work he had conducted in the 1970's concerning "categorization and social perception, intergroup behavior, and the pursuit of social psychological understanding of the causes of prejudice and intergroup conflict" (Abrams & Hogg, 1999). Although the two forms of identity "are not completely separable, but overlap and interact with one another very closely to guide a person's perceptions, attitudes and behaviors as well as for a general identity" (PSU World Campus, L.8, 2012, p.6). He believed there was "discontinuity between how people behaved when they related to others on an intergroup basis as opposed to an interpersonal or individual basis" and sought to explain the behavior of people in group situations (Abrams & Terry, 2001). Tajfel identified three components of social identity: self-conceptualization, group self-esteem, and commitment to the group, which when met led a person to feel connected to their in-group. As a result, all other groups become out-groups and are rivals for status and resources as well as a source for comparison. This can lead to discrimination in favor of the in-group or against other out-groups, as well as stereotyping and prejudice when a perceived threat occurs (Redmond, 2009).

Social Identity Theory Components[modifier | modifier le code]

Self-Categorization
Self-Esteem
Commitment

Research on Social Identity Theory[modifier | modifier le code]

A vast amount of research has shown support for the Social Identity Theory, both in labs and in organizations (Redmond, 2009). The research has been conducted through experiments, self-report measures, and observations and has largely "focused on intergroup relations, prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping, collective action, and other such behaviors" (Hogg & Terry, 2001). Social Identity theory has generated a vast amount of empirical research. It has stimulated a plethora of different analysis and hypothesis in a wide range of areas associated with the theory. Perhaps most importantly the theory and it's research has provided new ways of thinking about major social-psychological phenomena, in particular, the individual-group relationship and group processes, prejudice and inter-group relations, social stereotyping, and the self-concept and personality (Ellemers, 1999). The perspective represents an approach in social psychology that is unique in that it embodies a general meta theory, social interactionism. In recent years as technology has become more prevalent, there has been research done on how groups are affected when members of the group only communicate via telephone or computer and not face-to-face in a co-located environment. This research has found that when the "dispersed workforce" feels psychologically connected to the organization, the goals of the group and the organization converge and this "allows its members to act as a coordinated unit." Hogg Research concerning gender discrimination has also been a focus in recent years as more and more women are entering fields typically dominated by men. These studies show that in certain situations women do experience discrimination by men as well as other women, which can lead to less job satisfaction, lower organizational commitment, turnover, absenteeism, and lower job performance (Hogg & Terry, 2001). This research is useful for organizations to be able to understand social identity and to initiate interventions such as intergroup contact, which has been shown to promote for positive intergroup attitudes (Hogg & Terry, 2001).

Integrated Threat Theory Overview[modifier | modifier le code]

Integrated Threat Theory was originally introduced by Walter G. Stephan in 2000. The theory is structurally modeled after Thomas F. Pettigrew’s Intergroup Contact Theory of 1998 which focused on the conditions that foster intergroup contact and lead to changes in intergroup relations. Similarly, Integrated Threat Theory focuses on the conditions that lead to perceptions of threat, which in turn have an impact on attitudes and behavior (Wagner, 2008).